The PEA(pulsed electro-acoustic) method is widely used for measuring space charge distribution in insulation materials. However, the measured quantity reflects a voltage curve over time rather than the actual space charge distribution. Therefore, establishing a calibration procedure is crucial to determine the relationship between these two quantities. This calibration procedure aims to convert the measured voltage into the spatial distribution of space charge while correcting for non-idealities such as distortion and attenuation. This paper outlines the main steps of the PEA system calibration and provides a detailed discussion on the selection of the reference signal. Furthermore, recommendations are provided to enhance the accuracy and reliability of the calibration process.

The correct identification of partial discharges (PDs) is instrumental for the maintenance plan in gas-insulated systems (GIS). However, onsite PD measurements are difficult, especially in HVDC systems, where partial discharges can be confused with interference. This paper proposes a method to discern PDs from interferences based on the GIS characteristic impedance. The characteristic impedance is measured using very-high frequency electric and magnetic sensors, and it is calculated using four approaches based on the PD charge magnitude, peak value, peak-to-peak value, and frequency spectrum. The method is first tested with a PD calibrator in a matched and open-circuited GIS testbench. Then, the identification of PDs and interference is tested in a full-scale GIS, where the measurements are subjected to pulse overlapping and noise. Five types of interferences and PDs are injected into the GIS in two positions and measured in multiple mounting holes. The results show that all four approaches can precisely calculate the characteristic impedance in a matched testbench. In the full-scale GIS, these approaches show more deviation, with the peak approach being the most accurate. A practical application of the method is demonstrated using a calibrator in the full-scale GIS. The proposed method contributes to a more reliable PD monitoring system for HVDC/AC GIS and allows better maintenance planning, reducing unnecessary costs, notably for offshore substations.

SF6 is being phased out of the electrical grid as it is a strong greenhouse gas. A 'green' alternative to SF6 is fluoronitrile (C4-FN). The dutch transmission system operator (TSO) TenneT wanted to investigate the electrical behavior of this 'green' alternative as a pilot-gas insulated line (GIL) filled with C4-FN/CO2 (5%/95%) experienced multiple electrical breakdowns during the site acceptance tests (SATs). TenneT hypothesized that the breakdown was caused by the effect of (too much) humidity in the gas. Therefore, the ac breakdown behavior of the gas mixture has been researched under different amounts of humidity and operating pressures. This article also makes a small introduction on how humidity affects partial discharge (PD) behavior of corona, which is often a breakdown indicator. The results of this research conclude that humidity affects the ac breakdown strength. An increase in humidity in the gas results in a decrease in the ac breakdown strength. Moreover, the field configuration determines the amplitude of the impact. The impact of humidity on the ac breakdown strength in a homogenous field is substantially more compared to an inhomogeneous field, where the impact can almost be ignored. Yet, the effect of humidity decreases as the operating pressure increases. The phase-resolved PD pattern and PD characteristics of corona in a C4-FN gas mixture also differ with humidity. On the other hand, the PD inception voltage did not change with the humidity content. As a result of the findings in this research, further research is proposed toward the affected breakdown mechanism and more various PD behavior.

This paper introduces a directional coupler for partial discharge (PD) measurements in gas-insulated substations (GIS). The sensor comprises a combination of magnetic and electric couplers, effectively segregating forward and backward pulses to enhance PD charge estimation and defect location. The sensor's design was supported with finite element method simulations and measurements conducted in a transverse electromagnetic test bench. Comparative analyses were performed against independent magnetic and electric couplers. The charge estimation and the directional coupler's directivity were evaluated in both the test bench and a full-scale GIS with different PD defects. Initially, the combined magnetic and the electric couplers exhibited undesired interactions, prompting corrective measures. Subsequent adjustments included changes to the electric coupler material and modifications to the magnetic coupler construction. The resulting high-voltage directional coupler performed better than the separated couplers in a GIS with discontinuities. This partial discharge sensor emerges as a candidate for future SF₆-free alternative GIS.

A degaussing system can be used to reduce the detectability of the magnetic signature of a ship. Commonly, a degaussing system consists of a set of onboard copper coils that produce a magnetic field to compensate for the magnetic signature. High-temperature superconductive degaussing coils are considered an alternative to copper degaussing coils because of a reduction in energy losses, weight, volume, and costs. The losses of a high-temperature superconductor (HTS) degaussing system can be reduced even further by powering it with a cryocooled converter with parallel mosfets. A low-duty cycle and smaller current leads can be used. These solutions eliminate most of the power source losses. This article investigates such a cryocooled converter. The effect of the low switching frequency on the converter performance is tested. A prototype that can operate at cryogenic temperatures was built. The converter powers an HTS coil. It was found that a load current of 50 A can be achieved with a duty cycle of just 0.025 at an input voltage of 3.5 V while still meeting the requirement of a maximum current ripple of 0.5%. At a switching frequency higher than 100 Hz, the converter's performance deteriorates. Also, oscillations were observed in the circuit. This is a problem due to the low blocking voltage of the mosfets. The parasitic inductances in the circuit have a high impact on the performance because the resistance in the circuit is very low.

Partial discharge (PD) measurements in gasinsulated substations (GIS) are tested according to the standard IEC 60270. This “conventional” PD test method applies to electrically small devices. The equipment size increases the resonance, and attenuation, contributing to the total uncertainty. Additionally, when an ultra-high frequency (UHF) sensor is used as a coupling capacitor, the calibrator and PD pulse duration difference increase the measurement uncertainty. In this paper, the IEC method, using an external capacitor coupler and a UHF sensor, is simulated and tested in a full-scale GIS. The results show the uncertainty dependency with the IEC 60270 filter bandwidth. With proper measures, the UHF sensor correlates with the external coupling capacitor, resulting in a reasonable charge estimation for a 25-meter-long GIS. Knowing the calibration limits is critical to estimate the PD charge uncertainty.

The insulation condition of HVDC grids consisting of cable systems, GIS, and converters should be monitored by partial discharge (PD) analysers using artificial intelligence (AI) tools for efficient insulation diagnosis. Although there are many experiences of PD monitoring solutions developed for the supervision of the insulation condition of HVAC grids using PD analysers, there are no standardised requirements for their qualification available yet. The international technical specification TS IEC 62478 provides general rules for PD measurements using electromagnetic methods but does not define performance requirements for qualification tests. HVDC and HVAC PD analysers must be tested by unambiguous test procedures. This paper compiles experiences of using PD analysers with HFCT sensors in HVAC grids (cable systems, GIS, and AIS) to define a qualification procedure for HVAC systems. This procedure is applicable to HVDC grids (cable systems, GIS, AIS, and converters) because the particularities related to the insulation behaviour under HVDC voltage are also considered. Representative PD sources are discussed in HVAC and HVDC positive and negative polarity. The PD pulse trend of representative insulation defects in HVDC cable systems is quite different from that of HVAC grids. Special attention should be paid to the acquisition of PD signals in HVDC grids since few pulses appear in solid insulations, mainly during voltage changes (polarity reversals or surges), but rarely in continuous operation with constant direct voltage. A synthetic PD simulator has been developed to reproduce trains of PD pulses or noise signals, similar to those that can appear in the power network. A set of three functionality tests has been developed for qualification of the diagnostic capabilities of PD analysers working up to 30 MHz addressed to HVDC or HVAC grids: (1) PD recognition test, (2) PD clustering test, and (3) PD location test. This qualification procedure has been validated by means of a round-robin test performed by five research institutes (RISE, FFII, TUDelft, TAU, and UPM) using commercial and in-development AI PD recognition and clustering tools to demonstrate its robustness and applicability. Applying this qualification procedure, two PD methods for electrical detection and prevention of insulation defects have been approved, one for HVAC and the other for HVDC grids.

One of the main difficulties in measuring partial discharges (PD) in gas-insulated substations (GIS) is the overlapping of pulses at the sensor's location, which distorts the pulse resolution and the charge estimation. This research presents a new method called “synergy,” which identifies and suppresses reflections using magnetic and electric antennas in the very-high frequency range. By scaling the antennas’ outputs and adding them, it is possible to segregate forward and backward pulses. Additionally, by multiplying the electric and magnetic signals, the power flow of the pulses is obtained, which identifies the propagation direction and the location of discontinuities in the transmission path. The synergy method is evaluated in three scenarios: a fully matched test bench using a calibrated pulse, a full-scale GIS using a calibrated pulse, and a full-scale GIS using a PD defect. The results showed that the pulse reflections can be eliminated from the incident pulse, improving the charge calculation when the pulses overlap. The output of this research represents an improvement for PD monitoring in GIS, exhibiting a tool for better defect localization, pulse wave shape construction, charge estimation, and possible interference rejection.

On-site partial discharge (PD) measurements have turned out to be a very efficient technique for determining the insulation condition in high-voltage electrical grids (AIS, cable systems, GIS, HVDC converters, etc.); however, there is not any standardised procedure for determining the performances of PD measuring systems. In on-line and on-site PD measurements, high-frequency current transformers (HFCTs) are commonly used as sensors as they allow for monitoring over long distances in high-voltage installations. To ensure the required performances, a metrological qualification of the PD analysers by applying an evaluation procedure is necessary. A novel evaluation procedure was established to specify the quantities to be measured (electrical charge and PD repetition rate) and to describe the evaluation tests considering the measured influence parameters: noise, charge amplitude, pulse width and time interval between consecutive pulses. This procedure was applied to different types of PD analysers used for off-line measurements, sporadic on-line measurements and continuous PD monitoring. The procedure was validated in a round-robin test involving two metrological institutes (RISE from Sweden and FFII from Spain) and three universities (TUDelft from the Netherlands, TAU from Finland and UPM from Spain). With this round-robin test, the effectiveness of the proposed qualification procedure for discriminating between efficient and inappropriate PD analysers was demonstrated. Furthermore, it was shown that the PD charge quantity can be properly determined for on-line measurements and continuous monitoring by integrating the pulse signals acquired with HFCT sensors. In this case, these sensors must have a flat frequency spectrum in the range between several tens of kHz and at least two tens of MHz, where the frequency pulse content is more significant. The proposed qualification procedure can be useful for improving the future versions of the technical specification TS IEC 62478 and the standard IEC 60270.

Detection of the magnetic signature of ships can be avoided by using a degaussing system; a set of on-board copper coils that compensates for the magnetic signature. High temperature superconductors (HTS) are currently investigated as a replacement for copper degaussing coils. By using HTS, we have to deal with higher currents and therefore with higher power supply losses. Also, large current leads are needed which introduces extra losses. This paper investigates different possible solutions to minimize these losses. Four H-bridge-based MOSFET topologies are presented that were designed to reduce the power supply and current lead losses. The first topology uses an H-bridge configuration so that the degaussing current can freewheel through the low-resistance MOSFETs. The second topology places the H-bridge inside the cryostat so that the current leads can be made smaller. The third topology includes a smoothing capacitor in the cryostat so that the current leads and input current are even smaller. The fourth topology uses a transformer so that the current leads can be eliminated. Measurements were done to determine the MOSFETs and capacitor performance in liquid nitrogen. The simulated losses of the four topologies are compared to determine the most energy-efficient option for supplying current to the HTS coils. It was found that by submerging multiple parallel MOSFETs in liquid nitrogen, the on-state resistance is decreased and the current supply can be made more efficient. Also, by placing a smoothing capacitor inside the cryostat, the current lead losses can be minimized significantly. The benefits of using a transformer do not outweigh the transformer losses.

Ships can avoid to be detected by magnetic mines by reducing their magnetic signature with degaussing coils. Degaussing currents are provided by switched mode power supplies which impose a current ripple on top of the degaussing current. The ripple might be visible in the magnetic signature which would increase the detectability of the ship. A way to reduce the ripple in the magnetic field is to use a switching modulation scheme in the degaussing power supplies. In this paper, a magnetic model of a ship with degaussing coils is described. It is used to find the magnitude of the ripple in the magnetic signature. Also the effect of reducing the current ripple by frequency modulation is investigated. Several modulation schemes are modelled. It is found that the ripple in the magnetic signature is often, but not always, negligible due to attenuation by the ship’s hull. For low frequency switching applications, like high temperature superconductor degaussing systems, the ripple is visible in the magnetic signature. It is found that switching frequency modulation is a very effective technique to reduce the ripple of degaussing currents. Of the tested schemes, random lead lag and random switching frequency are the most effective.

Recent research has found that Magnetic loop antennas can detect partial discharges (PD) in gas-insulated substations (GIS); however, unbalanced shielded loop (UBSL) antennas are affected by electric field coupling. This research proposes a balanced shielded loop (BSL) adapted for GIS PD sensing with different designs. The frequency response and PD charge estimation for BSL and UBSL antennas are analyzed and compared in a matched test bench using a very-fast pulse calibrator. The results confirmed a better common-mode noise rejection and thus a better charge estimation by using the balanced magnetic antenna. An alternative BSL design improved the antenna's gain by a factor of two, and by using a balun transformer, the gain was increased by a factor of 4. The results showed the criticality in the shielded gap placement and the influence of the antenna's parasitic elements on the balun's frequency response. This paper shows an improvement in the noise rejection using magnetic antennas, which leads to the possibility of better PD sensing in GIS.

Partial discharges (PD) measurements provide an estimation of the severity of the insulation degradation; additionally, it is used as a unit of standardization. Up to now, only the IEC 62478 briefly mentions partial discharge measurements using electromagnetic sensors in gas-insulated substations (GIS). The IEC60270 standard provides a method for PD charge measurement when the test object approximates to a lumped element; PD in SF 6 are in the range of nanosecond, and given the GIS length, it behaves as a transmission line. This work compares different sensors (commercially available and developed by the authors) used for measuring PD charge magnitude in GIS. The sensors’ sensitivity, time resolution, and charge estimation accuracy are tested in a full-scale 420 kV GIS. A nanosecond rise time pulse was connected to the GIS through a transition cone to provide a good PD representation. The pulse was measured by electric and magnetic sensors installed in mounting holes located in different sections of the GIS, and a directional coupler was used as a reference to the injected pulse. This work demonstrates that the charge magnitude can be extracted using different sensors, harmonizing the reading from different measuring systems. The results show the possibility of a standardized method for on-line PD measurements and routine and after-installation tests.

There are no accepted procedures that quantify the apparent charge of partial discharge (PD) in gas-insulated substations (GIS). This paper proposes a calibration method for PD charge estimation using unconventional electromagnetic sensors: a magnetic loop antenna (inductive coupler) and an electric antenna (capacitive coupler.) The calibration procedure is intended for the voltage double integral method, which is reviewed for magnetic antennas and extended for electric antennas. By injecting low-frequency sinusoidal signals, the calibration constants are determined for two different test setups: the first one being a testbench where the characteristic impedance is matched and the second one a full-scale 420 kV GIS. The calibration method is validated in three ways: with a calibrated pulse in the testbench, a calibrated pulse in a full-scale GIS, and PD defects in the full-scale GIS. The calibration procedure revealed a frequency limit range dependent on the GIS length and the sensor's signal-to-noise ratio. The three validation methods showed low charge estimation errors for the magnetic and electric antennas, demonstrating that the PD calibration method applies to any electric/magnetic detector with a low-frequency derivative response. This research paves the way for better GIS insulation monitoring and PD sensor harmonization.

This paper presents the investigation on surface discharge behavior of various dielectric samples under DC. It sequentially develops the knowledge base for the study and analysis of the partial discharge (PD) defect with the goal of PD defect identification under DC. In order to facilitate this, the material properties of the dielectric are measured. Finite Element (FEM) simulation is used to obtain the preliminary estimates of the electric field and dielectric properties that concern partial discharge behavior. The DC-PD tests performed on the surface dielectric samples demonstrate a highly plausible behavior based on simulation results and other literature. It also displays a great degree of similarity towards the AC surface discharge behavior. The paper concludes by presenting novel partial discharge fingerprints for the surface PD defect that will aid in defect identification under HVDC.

The advent of new combinations of equipment and integrations of different power grids can potentially be accompanied by transient voltage phenomena which affect the reliability of electrical insulation systems. In particular, this affects insulation susceptible to partial discharge behaviour due to additional transient waveforms. Nowadays in transmission grid planning, overhead lines are increasingly combined with underground power cables. In switching such connections impulses could occasionally occur and superimpose on the normal AC voltage which will lead to superimposed transient waveforms. Those transient voltages will impose an additional stress on the cable insulation that could trigger partial discharges, that sustain. This paper reviews our recent research of some cable insulation defects of industrial relevance by partial discharge measurement on high voltage power cables stressed by different waveforms, including impulses, superimposed transients on AC voltage. This paper identifies achievements and at the same time challenges still to be solved in partial discharge measurement under different waveforms.

Gas insulated substations (GIS) have increased in the electric power system in recent years and is expected to continue increasing in the following years. The GIS has remarkable advantages over air insulated substation in offshore windfarms where the installation space is limited. The outlying location of the GIS demands a robust monitoring system. It is well known from literature that partial discharge (PD) measurements are an accepted method for insulation diagnosis and in many cases a required part of the acceptance protocol for many high voltage (HV) assets. In a recent investigation, a new concept of PD measurements in GIS using a Very High Frequency (VHF) Sensor (so-called Magnetic Antenna) has been demonstrated. Unlike Ultra High Frequency (UHF) technology, the presented PD sensor has a sensitivity better than 5 pC and yield an estimation of the charge magnitude, thus providing information about the severity of the insulation degradation. In this paper, a test bench for the characterization of the magnetic antenna is proposed. The magnetic antenna and a traditional UHF antenna are tested in the frequency domain up to 1 GHz, and in the time domain using different wave-shapes. Additionally, using the test bench, it is demonstrated the homogeneity of the PD current propagating in the GIS in the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode. The charge is estimated using the double integral voltage method, showing low errors. The results from the research gives a preface for further investigation in the design of the magnetic antenna.

The discharge over dielectric interfaces popularly known as surface discharge is a very common defect type that is associated with its respective discharge pattern under AC voltages. However, the same designs behave differently under DC voltages leading up to erratic PD behavior. To understand the process of surface discharge an equivalent circuit model is developed, and its influencing material parameters such as the volumetric and surface electrical conductivities and the relative permittivity are measured experimentally. This paper describes the methodology and setup of the measurement based on international standards. The final goal is to provide the constituent model parameters that can describe the surface discharge model under DC stress.

A recent investigation explored a new measuring concept used in partial discharges (PD) measurements in gas insulated substations (GIS), consisting of a magnetic loop antenna. The sensor's frequency response was characterized up to some tens of MHz. This paper proposes an improved version of the sensor with an extended bandwidth (BW) one order of magnitude higher: a resonance, attributed to a common mode current in the mounting hole, is identified and eliminated employing ferrite beads in the feeder cables. Moreover, this publication proposes an electric circuit model that fully covers the transverse electromagnetic mode (TEM) frequency range in GIS. The electric model is compared against experimental measurements using a 1 GHz bandwidth testbench, giving accurate results. Two contributions are achieved in this research: an improved magnetic loop antenna with extended bandwidth and an accurate electric circuit model. This publication paves the way for further research on time resolution and signal postprocessing techniques for magnetic loop antennas in GIS.

The Pulsed Electroacoustic Method is one of the most common methods for space charge measurements in solid dielectrics. This method involves applying a voltage pulse across the dielectric under test, which modifies the electrostatic force balance across the dielectric, creating an acoustic signal that can be measured externally. This work analyzes the influence of the pulsed voltage circuit connection location at the PEA test towards the generated distortion due to the electromagnetic interaction between the pulsed voltage and the acoustic sensor by means of experimental tests. From the tests, it can be observed that the connection locations of the pulsed voltage circuit directly connected to the test cell have a significant influence on the distortion magnitude. In practice, this means that the generated distortion can be significantly diminished by modifying the physical location of the connection to the PEA test cell of the pulsed voltage injection electrodes. The results of this paper could serve as a guideline for the construction of PEA measurement setups to minimize the signal distortion caused by the pulsed voltage, which can also reflect in simpler post-processing.