As the voltage levels of solid-state transformers (SSTs) increase using medium-voltage switches, high-frequency transformers (HFTs) used inside SSTs are subjected to increased electrical stress. This stress, characterized by high voltage, high-frequency pulsewidth modulation (PWM) voltage, can cause insulation partial discharge (PD) and potentially lead to failure of the HFT insulation system. While PD behavior under power-frequency sinusoidal voltage has been extensively studied, the behavior of HFT insulation under PWM square pulse conditions is less well understood. To address this gap, a high voltage high-frequency PWM voltage PD test platform is developed and high-frequency current transformer (HFCT) and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) antenna are used for PD signal detection. PD tests are performed under a variety of PWM conditions including PWM frequency, rise time, voltage amplitude, and different insulation layers to thoroughly investigate the HFT insulation behavior. The PD characteristics of repetitive PD inception voltage and phase-resolved PD patterns at different PWM conditions are recorded and analyzed under PWM conditions. In addition, this article explores the underlying PD mechanisms of the HFT insulation under high-frequency PWM stress, providing insights to explain the observed test results. The findings from this research provide essential references and lay a solid foundation for future advances in optimal design, health monitoring, reliability analysis, and lifetime prediction for HFTs in power electronics applications.

The PEA(pulsed electro-acoustic) method is widely used for measuring space charge distribution in insulation materials. However, the measured quantity reflects a voltage curve over time rather than the actual space charge distribution. Therefore, establishing a calibration procedure is crucial to determine the relationship between these two quantities. This calibration procedure aims to convert the measured voltage into the spatial distribution of space charge while correcting for non-idealities such as distortion and attenuation. This paper outlines the main steps of the PEA system calibration and provides a detailed discussion on the selection of the reference signal. Furthermore, recommendations are provided to enhance the accuracy and reliability of the calibration process.

Capacitance plays a crucial role in high dv/dt situations, making the accurate estimation of parasitic capacitance essential. This paper introduces an improved method of moments (MoM) for calculating the capacitance of round conductors, with or without insulation layers. The proposed method combines MoM with an analytical solution based on Laplace's equation. Compared to the original MoM, the proposed method does not require consideration of polarization charges on the surface of the insulation layer, which reduces the matrix size. Additionally, the proposed method can provide asymptotic formulas for capacitance calculation. The proposed method is compared with the 2D finite-element method (FEM), MoM and measurements. The results demonstrate that the proposed method aligns well with both the FEM simulations and the actual measurements. The proposed method uses less than half the time to calculate the same cases compared to the original MoM.

As the world moves towards S F6-free insulation technologies, understanding the dielectric behaviour of alternative gas mixtures is becoming increasingly important. Detailed characterization of partial discharge (PD) behaviour within conventional measurement circuits is constrained by distortion of the fast transient signal, limiting the effective measurement bandwidth. This study presents a novel measurement circuit that omits the traditional coupling capacitor and instead leverages the inherent capacitance of the gas-insulated structure to establish a more compact and sensitive detection path. The improved setup enables detailed time-domain acquisition of fast-rising PD pulses using a high-frequency current transformer (HFCT). Using this system, the corona discharge characteristics of a CO2 / O2(7 0 % / 3 0 %) gas mixture are experimentally investigated at pressures of 0.2,0.3 and 0.4 MPa. Phase-resolved PD patterns are analysed to assess the influence of gas pressure on PD inception voltage, charge magnitude, and pulse repetition behaviour.

Due to climate change more power converters are installed in the grid resulting in the injection of (supra-) harmonic currents and voltages in the grid. As part of a larger research, the impact of harmonic frequencies on insulation materials is studied. This paper discusses the results of breakdown voltage tests of synthetic ester liquid with varying frequency and electrode distance. A test cell according to IEC 60156 is used with electrode distance varying from 0.5 mm to 0.1 mm and the frequency is varied from 50 Hz to 2000 Hz. The results indicate a dependency on both electrode distance and fundamental frequency.

More electric aircraft (MEA) is an important direction for future aircraft development. The printed circuit boards (PCBs) of power electronics equipment in MEA operate in a complex environment of low air pressure, square wave voltage, compact layout, and strong electromagnetic interference, which makes the PCB more prone to partial discharge (PD). However, the effective detection method and related discharge characteristics for PCB PD under square wave voltage are still unclear. Therefore, this article proposes a PCB PD detection method based on fluorescent optical fiber, which has good anti-electromagnetic interference ability. The PD characteristics of the PCB with three typical structures under three air pressures are studied, including PD nonbreakdown characteristics, changes in optical pulse amplitude and pulse repetition rate during PD aging, PD breakdown path analysis, and PCB surface electric field simulation. The analysis shows that air pressure, space charge, and PCB surface flatness all have important influences on the PD of PCB under square wave voltage. It provides important theoretical support for the insulation protection design and fault diagnosis of PCB for MEA in the future.

This paper comprehensively reviews several techniques that address the static and dynamic voltage balancing of series-connected MOSFETs. The effectiveness of these techniques was validated through simulations and experiments. Dynamic voltage-balancing techniques include gate signal delay adjustment methods, passive snubbers, passive clamping circuits, and hybrid solutions. Based on the experimental results, the advantages and disadvantages of each technique are investigated. Combining the gate-balancing core method with an RC snubber, which has proven both technically and commercially attractive, provides a robust solution. If the components are sorted and binned, voltage-balancing techniques may not be necessary, further enhancing the commercial viability of series-connected MOSFETs. An investigation of gate driver topologies yields one crucial conclusion: magnetically isolated gate drivers offer a simple and cost-effective solution for high-frequency (HF) applications (2.5–50 kHz) above 8 kV with an increased number of series devices. Below 8 kV, it is advantageous to move the isolation barrier from the gate drive IC to an optocoupler and isolated supply, allowing for a simple design with commercially available components.

This paper introduces a directional coupler for partial discharge (PD) measurements in gas-insulated substations (GIS). The sensor comprises a combination of magnetic and electric couplers, effectively segregating forward and backward pulses to enhance PD charge estimation and defect location. The sensor's design was supported with finite element method simulations and measurements conducted in a transverse electromagnetic test bench. Comparative analyses were performed against independent magnetic and electric couplers. The charge estimation and the directional coupler's directivity were evaluated in both the test bench and a full-scale GIS with different PD defects. Initially, the combined magnetic and the electric couplers exhibited undesired interactions, prompting corrective measures. Subsequent adjustments included changes to the electric coupler material and modifications to the magnetic coupler construction. The resulting high-voltage directional coupler performed better than the separated couplers in a GIS with discontinuities. This partial discharge sensor emerges as a candidate for future SF₆-free alternative GIS.

This article presents a 3-D numerical impedance calculation method based on cylindrical elements. It can be used to model the Litz wire and further air-core coil wound by the Litz wire. The discretization is based on cylindrical elements, resulting in a small amount of elements. Cylindrical element analysis is based on a 2-D analysis and its analog to 3-D. The analysis considers both transverse and longitudinal magnetic fields applied to elements. The proposed method is applied to several Litz wires and compared with 3-D finite element method (FEM), which validates that the method has good accuracy and fast computational speed. The effectiveness of the method for the air-core coil is validated by measurements. The proposed method is promising in facilitating coil optimization.

Litz wires, which are utilized to suppress eddy current, often have complex structures. This paper presents a partial element equivalent circuit (PEEC)-based 3D model for Litz wires with round conductor. The model accounts for both transverse and longitudinal magnetic fields. The discretization of the Litz wire is based on cylindrical elements resulting in a reduced number of elements. Cylindrical element analysis is based on a 2D analytical method. The proposed model is compared with 3D FEM, which shows the model has good accuracy and fast computational speed. It is promising to facilitate Litz wires optimization.

Resonant converters are popular in power electronics due to their soft-switching capabilities, which enhance efficiency and prolong component lifetime. Three- phase resonant converters are particularly noteworthy for their higher power density and reduced ripple, making them ideal for demanding applications. A critical aspect of optimizing three-phase LLC resonant converters is the design of a transformer with adequate leakage inductance required for the resonance circuit. This paper compares two distinct transformer designs for such converters: a five-limb shell-type transformer and a symmetrical triangular transformer. Both designs are evaluated in terms of their performance, efficiency, and suitability for integration into the converter architecture. A detailed design procedure using Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis is presented to guide the development of these transformers. The practicality of this approach and its effectiveness are demonstrated through the implementation of a 3.4 kV to 60 V, 50 kVA prototype. This work provides a comparative analysis of transformer designs and introduces a validated methodology for improving the performance of three-phase LLC resonant converters through optimized transformer design.

To enhance the voltage-handling capability of a switch, the series connection of switching devices is a cost-effective method that preserves many advantages of mature low-voltage devices. Dynamic voltage imbalance and electrical isolation for the devices at the high voltage (HV) side are two important challenges associated with series connection topology. Transformer-coupled gate drivers are excellent for providing both dynamic voltage balance and high galvanic isolation. However, they can only provide the switching function at the transformer pulse frequency. To generate complex waveforms of future power-electronics-dominated grids, a switch with user-defined turn-on/off timing is required for testing grid assets under high-voltage conditions. This article presents a simple, cost-effective open-loop gate driver that overcomes this limitation by introducing two sets of complementary pulse transformers to initialize programmable frequency and duty cycle. Successful experimental verification of the series-connected SiC mosfets prototype is performed at 3.2 kV at various frequencies and duty cycles. The article also demonstrates that the measurement probes placed across series-connected mosfets significantly affect the voltage distribution and validate a compensation mechanism.

The correct identification of partial discharges (PDs) is instrumental for the maintenance plan in gas-insulated systems (GIS). However, onsite PD measurements are difficult, especially in HVDC systems, where partial discharges can be confused with interference. This paper proposes a method to discern PDs from interferences based on the GIS characteristic impedance. The characteristic impedance is measured using very-high frequency electric and magnetic sensors, and it is calculated using four approaches based on the PD charge magnitude, peak value, peak-to-peak value, and frequency spectrum. The method is first tested with a PD calibrator in a matched and open-circuited GIS testbench. Then, the identification of PDs and interference is tested in a full-scale GIS, where the measurements are subjected to pulse overlapping and noise. Five types of interferences and PDs are injected into the GIS in two positions and measured in multiple mounting holes. The results show that all four approaches can precisely calculate the characteristic impedance in a matched testbench. In the full-scale GIS, these approaches show more deviation, with the peak approach being the most accurate. A practical application of the method is demonstrated using a calibrator in the full-scale GIS. The proposed method contributes to a more reliable PD monitoring system for HVDC/AC GIS and allows better maintenance planning, reducing unnecessary costs, notably for offshore substations.

More and more printed circuit boards (PCBs) will be used in electric aircraft to achieve higher power density of the on-board electric system, while PCBs in aircraft are more likely to generate partial discharges (PDs) due to external factors such as compact structure and low air pressure. Therefore, this article proposes a fluorescent fiber-based method for detecting and evaluating PDs on PCBs. The detection method is effectively immune against the presence of the electromagnetic, acoustic, and vibration interference. Based on the optical detection, the evolution regularities of PCB surface appearance changes, optical PRPD patterns, and optical pulses during the aging process of PCB under different air pressure are analyzed in this article. Then, 12 assessment features are extracted for the PD aging process, and the contribution of these 12 features to the severity assessment at different air pressures is obtained using the minimal-redundancy-maximal-relevance (mRMR) algorithm. Finally, different numbers of PD features are tested for PD severity assessment by the support vector machine (SVM) algorithm. The evaluation results show that the severity assessment method proposed in this article can achieve an assessment accuracy of at least 91.1% and up to 94.4% under all three air pressures, which has good application and guidance value.

This article proposes a new configuration of a modular multilevel converter (MMC) and a Marx generator to generate fast-rising impulse waveforms. This new configuration improves the capabilities of the MMC-based high voltage arbitrary wave shape generator to generate fast-rising impulse since the MMC topology faces many inherent limitations. Similar to the conventional superimposed circuit of the ac transformer or dc rectifier circuit with the Marx generator, three hybrid circuits of MMC and the Marx generator are introduced, where the most optimal choice is made considering the practical aspects of testing, such as the size, cost, and preparation time. Then, a detailed analytical study is performed on the Marx generator circuit and the MMC circuit, and both circuits are coupled together to deliver a complete guideline on choosing various system parameters when the impulse wave shape and the load capacitor are given. The concept of this new hybrid configuration is demonstrated with a scaled-down prototype where the impulse with a rise time of 1 μs is superimposed on different arbitrary wave shapes. Similarly, the MATLAB-Simulink simulation model validates the proposed configuration for a 200, k V dc link voltage and 67 submodules with the desired impulse performance.

To test high-voltage (HV) equipment with increasingly complex transients obtained from various power system studies, this article demonstrates a hardware implementation of a medium-voltage (MV) submodule (SM) to be used in a modular multilevel converter (MMC)-based HV arbitrary wave shape generator (AWG). The MV SM is scalable with its own onboard auxiliary power supply (APS), and it is constructed by connecting three full-bridge SMs in series from the commercially available component. The designed MV SM can be operated for a wide voltage range of 0.8-2.7 kV to incorporate different test objects ranging from HV insulation material to MV equipment and generate a wide output range of 0.12-1.2 kV. Considering the hardware nonidealities in the APS, gate driver, and switches, the series operation of three SMs is ensured using an arm energy controller. Based on the current-based model of APS, SM capacitance design criteria are updated for variable-frequency output waveform, and the minimum dc-link voltage is calculated for the proper start-up of this scalable MMC module. Apart from the variable voltage per SM, the HV AWG application poses different conditions, such as a low value of SM capacitance value and the HV dc sources with a current rating of a few tens of milliamperes. Hence, this article proposes exclusive design guidelines for the proper start-up, steady-state, and shutdown operation of the MMC-based AWG. In addition, this article dives deeper analytically into the soft start-up algorithm to understand its working principle and to design the average charging current within the limit for any number of SMs of the arm. In the end, their performance is showcased with a single MV SM per arm, operating at a different voltage (0.8-2.7 kV) and frequency levels (1-600 Hz) and generating different wave shapes, such as triangular, sinusoidal with different harmonics, and pulse waveforms. In addition, the fault ride-through capability is verified for the MMC-based HV AWG.

In order to damp the resonance in the MMC-based Arbitrary Wave shape Generator (AWG) used for high voltage testing, an active damping control methodology is proposed in this paper instead of the passive damping with an arm resistor. It is vital to ensure the system’s stability when such an active damping closed loop control is implemented. Consequently, optimal parameters of a PI controller are designed by analyzing the stability margins of the involved transfer function using Bode-Plots. The performance of the designed active damping control methodology and the PI controller have been demonstrated with a 50 Hz sinusoidal waveform and arbitrary waveforms such as triangular, trapezoidal, and complex waveforms in MATLAB-Simulink. These results proves that the output voltage can track the reference without any reasonable error and does not contain any resonant frequency. Additionally, the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the sinusoidal waveform and other arbitrary waveforms is less than 1% with the Phase Shift Carrier (PSC) modulation technique.

Partial discharge (PD) measurements in gasinsulated substations (GIS) are tested according to the standard IEC 60270. This “conventional” PD test method applies to electrically small devices. The equipment size increases the resonance, and attenuation, contributing to the total uncertainty. Additionally, when an ultra-high frequency (UHF) sensor is used as a coupling capacitor, the calibrator and PD pulse duration difference increase the measurement uncertainty. In this paper, the IEC method, using an external capacitor coupler and a UHF sensor, is simulated and tested in a full-scale GIS. The results show the uncertainty dependency with the IEC 60270 filter bandwidth. With proper measures, the UHF sensor correlates with the external coupling capacitor, resulting in a reasonable charge estimation for a 25-meter-long GIS. Knowing the calibration limits is critical to estimate the PD charge uncertainty.

Penetration of power electronics in the grid has produced a new species of stresses, characterized by fast-rising pulsed waveforms with microsecond rise times repeating at several tens of kilohertz. Analyzing their impact on existing and future insulation systems requires pulse modulators, most often with pulse transformers (PTs), to perform aging and breakdown tests. PT design for klystron loads has been studied extensively albeit for either low repetition rates or short pulse durations. However, capacitive dielectric loads impose additional complex constraints on optimizing leakage ( ${L}_{\sigma }$ ) and parasitic capacitance ( ${C}_{d}$ ) in order to minimize rise time ( ${T}_{r}$ ) and overshoot ( $V_{\text {pk}}$ ). Ensuring consistent output pulse shape is crucial since breakdown is sensitive to voltage magnitude. This article discusses these challenges through the design procedure of a modulator prototype capable of producing bipolar pulses up to 14 kV with rise times $ < 2 ~\mu \text{s}$ at frequencies between 10 and 50 kHz. Major challenges, especially core selection, winding design, PT parasitic optimization, breakdown detection, and failure modes, are highlighted. A new PQR equation is derived to model modulators with capacitive loads. Finally, the output pulses are applied across oil-impregnated paper samples to generate statistics on insulation breakdown strength and lifetime at 10 and 50 kHz. Results illustrate a reduction in lifetime and breakdown strength at 50 kHz. This is possibly due to the nonhomogenous distribution of dielectric losses within the oil-paper leading to local hotspots and eventual thermal breakdown. Furthermore, a critical field ${F}_{c} = {21}$ kV/mm is found below which the slope of the lifeline decreases dramatically, thereby indicating a shift in the aging mechanism. Potential reasons for this phenomenon are also discussed.

In the future, series-connected SiC MOSFETs will become widely used in power-electronic-based medium and high voltage (HV) applications such as modular multilevel converters (MMCs). Balanced voltage sharing among the SiC MOSFET string is hard to be achieved due to possible deviation on MOSFET switching delay. In this paper, two types of gate signal delay adjustment methods (gate balancing core and improved RC snubber method) are presented to solve the unbalanced voltage sharing caused by MOSFET turn-off delay differences. The methods are validated with laboratory experiments performed on low-voltage prototypes and a performance comparison of these two approaches is given. Both methods significantly improve the drain-source voltage sharing, but the gate balancing core method is most suitable for HV and high-frequency applications.