Anatomy of Timber celebrates wood as the future of architecture, tracing how designers, engineers, and makers are reinventing building culture through craft, ecology, and innovation. Born from an international forum, the book brings together bold ideas and real projects that show timber’s power to connect forest to city, structure to climate, and design to responsibility. It’s a call to build beautifully, intelligently, and sustainably, with timber at the heart of it all.

This volume presents “Timber for Urban Density,” a TU Delft compendium of graduation projects and research (2018–2025) that position wood as structural method, urban resource, and cultural project. It advances a pedagogy where drawing, prototyping, and full-scale coordination are inseparable, and where reversibility, traceability, and life-cycle literacy shape detail and assembly. The book is organized around built proposals and essays that translate circular ethics into construction logic and city-scale policy. Design theses test timber across climates and programs: intergenerational housing frameworks and adaptable domestic typologies; neighbourhood top-ups that treat the city as forest through modular rooftop extensions; tropical dwellings negotiating humidity, rainfall, and craft; and resilient community infrastructures whose components are graded for reuse. Collectively they foreground demountable joints, stock-aware dimensioning, and serviceable layers that keep structure legible and teachable. Research chapters consolidate the operating system for practice. A “transparent guide” for Dutch timber construction couples maximum carbon storage with minimum embodied energy; a parametric high-rise study shows how layout and material choice drive footprint; bamboo and wood-technology papers extend the palette with moisture-induced joinery and multi-storey tropical systems; additional essays integrate forest ecologies into urban planning and probe acoustic performance in timber interiors. Together they outline standards, testing pathways, and stock-discretion methods that convert irregular urban feedstock into calculable, re-deployable elements. The result is a clear call to action: design to the available stock, standardize where it counts, keep connections reversible, and align architectural expression with ecological accountability.

Dit is een deelrapport van het project Geïndustrialiseerde Modulaire en Lage-Emissie Hoogbouw in de G4, dat werd gecoördineerd door AMS Institute en werd gefinancieerd door het Onderzoeksprogramma Emissieloos Bouwen. Dit rapport bevat de resultaten van T2.3 Bouwsystemen. Het onderzoek werd uitgevoerd binnen de ReStruct Group van het departement Architectural Engineering & Technology van TU Delft.

Along with the circular bioeconomy principles, alternative ways of utilizing biomass waste streams are considered viable approaches to reaching sustainability goals. Accordingly, a growing body of literature is exploring new materials utilizing biomass in 3D-printing applications. This article presents early-stage research that initially investigates the usability of bamboo fibers and dust with bio-based binders in 3D printing towards its use in the design and production of the built environments. The research delves into solutions through a material tinkering approach to develop a bio-based composite material that can be used in fused deposition modeling (FDM). It includes mechanical strength analyses of printed specimens to understand the effects of different infill designs on the structural performance of objects printed using bamboo-based composite. Then, it demonstrates a design-to-production workflow that integrates a mechanically informed infill pattern within a self-supporting wall design that can be produced by 3D printing with bamboo. The workflow is presented with a partial demonstrator produced through robotic 3D printing. The article concludes with discussions and recommendations for further research.

Human-Building Interaction (HBI) relies on sensor-actuator networks that are increasingly supported by Artificial Intelligence (AI). This paper presents a novel AI-supported Design-to-Robotic-Production-Assembly and -Operation (D2RPA&O) approach for reconfigurable furniture. It involves a multidisciplinary approach that relies on the integration of various domains such as architecture, robotics, computer, and material science. It contributes to the advancement of HBI by employing spatial reconfiguration relying on AI and lightweight material design, which is of relevance, particularly when the furniture consists of non-identical but similar components that are re−/ configured in a variety of possible combinations.

This paper explores the use of bamboo in Additive Manufacturing (AM), specifically towards the development of a building component. The presented study uses bamboo in the form of dust and fibers, which can be sourced from waste streams. This innovative approach not only offers a solution to the challenges of bamboo’s anatomy but also has the potential to use bamboo in a more circular way. With this approach, rather than being discarded at the end of its life cycle, bamboo products can be recycled and transformed into valuable powder and fibers, granting them a second life. By leveraging the benefits of additive manufacturing technology, such as reduced material waste and the ability to fabricate complex geometries, the design aimed to create a mechanically informed infill tailored to the loading condition of the building component. After use, the component can be re-introduced into a new mixture to be used in a new AM application, enabling circular use. The project involves a comprehensive workflow, including material research, design development exploration, manufacturing process exploration and prototyping.

Recent technological developments make perovskite solar cells (PSCs) particularly suitable for building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) applications on vertical building envelopes, but the relatively short lifespan of PSCs requires frequent replacement, thereby generating substantial waste. Careful consideration of circularity credentials of this novel technology is therefore essential prior to the extensive implementation of vertical PSCs in building envelopes. This paper provides a circular economy approach for the implementation of PSCs in vertical envelopes and assesses its economic feasibility by life cycle cost analysis in Europe. The process of recycling PSC is developed. The economic performance of PSC envelopes is provided and compared to that of the conventional rigid BIPV system. Uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis of economic indicators are then performed to identify the influential parameters. The findings indicate that the PSC envelope has a significant potential for circular BIPV components and that PSCs applied on vertical envelope are economically viable.

In the event sector, where there is a search for architectural constructions with an innovative morphology, reuse is key to strive towards more sustainable events. Designing modular structures and detailing them for easy disassembly and re-assembly is an ideal way to encourage and facilitate reuse. This way a longer lifespan is assured for the used components. However, temporary (event) structures are often hard to assemble, which can compromise their reusability. The difficulties of assembly are usually induced by the morphology of the modules or by using certain types of connections. Therefore these structures require optimization in terms of assembly while remaining resource efficient. The main objective of this research is to reimagine a developed structure, the ReciPlyDome, and optimize it in terms of assembly. The ReciPlyDome is a reciprocal dome structure based on a rhombic triacontahedron, whereby all elements are identical (except for the five elements that touch the ground). During the assembly phase of the first version of the ReciPlyDome, torsion in the components appeared to hinder efficient construction. To eliminate this, the dome was reviewed, which led to the development of a new connection system and an improved shape for the beams. A new full-scale version of the dome has been built, showing the positive effect of the improved connection system and the optimised beam position. In-situ measurements were made after construction, illustrating good correspondence between the digital and built model. Further research will focus on the covering of this modular reciprocal dome for outdoor use.

In 2018, the construction sector was responsible for 39% of the worldwide energy and process-related carbon dioxide emissions (Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction et al., 2019). This is partly due to the embodied carbon, which represents the carbon emissions related to building construction and material production (LETI, 2020). While zero energy buildings and zero energy renovations start to get the operational carbon down, the circular economy aims to do this by closing material loops and stimulating the reuse of discarded materials in building construction (Ellen McArthur Foundation et al., 2015). Although it is not a new phenomenon, material reuse does require a substantially different approach and is at this point not yet common in the building industry. This is especially true for load-bearing components. This article presents a pilot project for the reuse of discarded timber formwork for the construction of the façade and (load-bearing) substructure of a new house. Through this pilot case and by reflecting on a series of similar cases, it studies the remaining challenges for material reuse but also proposes and assesses redesign strategies that will allow upscaling the reuse of timber formwork. The project shows that although waste, material, and money can be saved by using reclaimed materials, it does complicate the design and construction process and, as such, does not necessarily reduce the total project budget. Moreover, for reuse to become a current practice, new design approaches and collaborations will need to be established. Finally, socio-economic factors must be considered to increase the acceptance of reclaimed materials in new building construction.

The Circular Economy (CE) paradigm has been gaining momentum. However, the tools and methods used to design, measure and implement circularity are not immediately suitable for decision making and practice by key stakeholders. This article details a qualitative and a quantitative method to evaluate characteristics such as circularity, adaptability and reuse of building elements amongst others in order to provide decision-makers, such as building clients, architects, investors and policy makers, an objective way to assess the benefits and constraints of circular buildings and elements. The study implements the method in the case study, the Circular Retrofit Lab in Belgium, and uses a multi-criteria decision approach to evaluate qualitative parameters and life cycle assessment and life cycle costing to quantitatively evaluate the circular solutions proposed in this study. As such, the paper shows how a multi-criteria decision approach can be applied to evaluate circular building solutions in the context of practical architectural projects, in this case assessing the suitability of three interior wall systems for applications with different turnover rates. The study shows that the overall performance of the evaluated wall systems varies largely from one expected user scenario to the other.

Utilising the inherent elasticity of their flexible components, bending-active struc-tures can easily be produced from planar or linear components. Although the components and their fabrication can be very simple, the deformation behaviour is often complex and can result in complex structural geometries. Parametric tools allow modelling such geometries by including material properties and behaviour early on in the design process. While this can potentially lead to an entirely new structural and morphological design vocabulary, functional requirements often demand regularity and compatibility from the structure and its components. This paper presents an approach for the development of bending-active kit- of-parts systems. Consisting of regular sets of identical or compatible components, these systems generate apparent geometric complexity though very simple geometric patterns and component connectivity. The resulting structures are reconfigurable and can be adapted to multiple uses, locations and spatial requirements. Theoreti-cal insights are supported by two applied cases: reciprocal bending-active structures and kinetic curved-line folding structures. Both use the flexibility of their components to develop structural diversity through a simple geometric system. Illustrated by two built structures, these cases show how a well- integrated design that considers manufacturing and assembly can lead to an efficient construction process. Moreover, using reversible connections, the structures allow reuse and even reconfiguration.

While transformable structures allow rapid assembly, reuse and reconfiguration, their technical complexity and related production or cost issues often hinder architectural application. Yet, vernacular or nomadic structures, like teepees or yurts, show how reversibility and transportability can be achieved with low-tech structural systems. The project presented in this paper is part of a broader research that investigates how material understanding and manipulation through elastic deformation can contribute to the development of low-tech and rapidly assembled kit-of-parts structures. More specifically, the ReciPlyDome project combines the concepts of bending-active and reciprocal structures. The parametric design and modelling of the system are based on regular polyhedra to guarantee uniformity and allow reconfiguration of the components. While this works from a design perspective, the structural performance is limited by the flexibility of the components. Therefore, we developed a double-layered component to increase the structural height and improve the stiffness of the structure. Preliminary FEM analyses provide assessment of this layering and stress stiffening, i.e. the stiffening effect of the residual stress. A full-scale prototype illustrates the rapid and low-tech manufacturing and assembly process. Through design, analysis and finally construction, this project illustrates the potential of active-bending in developing more low-tech and rapidly assembled structures.

Bending-active reciprocal structures consist of elastically bent beams in a mutually supporting weave pattern in which each connection joins only two beams. Aside from the advantages for fabrication and assembly, this system has an extensive geometric potential, allowing reuse and reconfiguration. However, the load-bearing behaviour of these structures is limited by the required flexibility of the components. This paper discusses the impact of geometric parameters on the stiffness of bending-active reciprocal geometries for two cases: single-layered domes and double-layered components. It concludes by illustrating the use of the double-layered component for the development of a kit-of-parts structure: the ReciPlyDome. Thanks to the elastic capacity of the components and the very simple connections, the ReciPlyDome can be very easily and rapidly assembled and manufactured. This in contrast with the high technical complexity of many other kit-of-parts or grid structures. The analyses underline the importance of the form-force relationship when developing bending-active reciprocal structures and show the potential of active bending for the development of pre-assembled beam components. This research is framed within the wider scope of developing lightweight, transformable and temporary structures.

Reciprocal Frame (RF) Structures are three-dimensional grid structures consisting of mutually supporting beams, where no more than two beams are connected at a time adding to simplicity of assembly and construction. The ReciPlyDome is a novel structural system based on utilizing bending-active principles and combining them with RF polyhedral morphologies and simple connections. The result is a lightweight plywood kit-of-parts dome, fabricated from flat plywood panels, cut and pre-bent to form the active-bent dome structure designed for disasembly. ReciPlySkin is a step further in the development and is a partially enclosed shelter structure clad with a membrane attached internally to the plywood beams of the ReciPlyDome. Building on the work already done on RF emergency shelters, this paper describes the ReciPlyDome and ReciPlySkin governing principles in the context of transformability. It presents the challenges and opportunities of these structures outlining the methods and process needed for their development. More specifically the investigation, design, optimization, fabrication and construction process of a full-scale dome demonstrator exhibited at the recent Circular Economy exhibition in Denmark, are shown. A reflection on how to develop the principles further is offered with some further research and design directions identified. Lastly, possible applications are also discussed.

Living in an age of rapid changes, designers are challenged to create solutions that remain sustainable in a continuously evolving environment. Since most of our earth's resources are finite, these solutions should incorporate efficient material use and reuse. Buildings and structures are always in transition. Facilitating these transformations is vital to the sustainable development of our built environment. With our group we study, develop and assess transformable structures on different scales, in different contexts and for various time-spans and purposes. This paper presents our work on transformable structures, based on four case studies: a kinetic curved-line folding component, a temporary and rapidly assembled structure, a dynamic wall assembly and a BIM tool for material flow assessment of adaptable buildings. Although varying in scale or purpose, these cases demonstrate the same key principles of transformability. Reducing the complexity of the connections and structural system facilitates an easy and rapid assembly, but also allows users and locals to participate in the assembly, maintenance, reconfiguration and deconstruction of the structure. Apart from benefits during the assembly and adaptability, it is important to assess transformable structures and building solutions on their material and cost effectiveness. With BIM tools it is possible to incorporate this assessment already in the conceptual design phases of a project, as illustrated in the fourth case.

As mutually supported beam structures, reciprocal frames limit the number of components that are joined at each connection to two. However, this system of intermediate connections introduces undesirable bending moments in the beam elements. By utilising elastic deformation to create curved geometries, bending-active structures show the potential of bending as a formation process. Moreover, the curved geometries showcase an increased resistance to bending. Despite the apparent potential, only a few geometric explorations of bending-active reciprocal structures exist. Therefore, we investigated the principle by developing a design methodology based on polyhedral shapes. As this work is part of a research on transformable, rapidly assembled structures, the focus lies on simplicity of the connections, uniformity of the components and reconfigurability. This paper discusses the development of a kit of parts of reciprocal bending-active components based on a selection of polyhedral dome types. To simplify the assembly of the structures and avoid the manual bending of the components on site, we introduce the concept of a double-layered, pre-bent component. Finally, this paper presents the development, fabrication and assembly of the ReciPlyDome, a full-scale prototype of a bending-active reciprocal dome with double-layered components. Preliminary analyses of the load-bearing behaviour show the potential of these systems for material-efficient, lightweight structures. The research presented in this paper contributes to the understanding of bending-active reciprocal frames as a structural principle for temporary and rapidly assembled structures.

In a dynamic context of rapidly evolving user needs, transformable structures anticipate and respond to changing demands in minimal time, with minimal effort. Innovative structural concepts should supplement the design of transformable structures to increase their structural and functional efficiency. Therefore, we defined transformable active bending as a combination of the principles of mobility and rapid assembly of transformable structures, and the utilisation of bending deformations in bending-active structures. Although it is the availability of state-of-the-art design modelling techniques and structural modelling tools that facilitate design exploration and form-finding of bending-active structures, accurate modelling of the complex relation between their geometry and bending behaviour remains challenging. This paper presents two principles for the design of transformable bending-active structures, respectively based on design for disassembly and deployability. Furthermore and illustrated by two case studies the paper introduces two digital modelling techniques. Further research on transformable bending-active structures will focus on their realisation and structural performance.

Curved-line folding is the act of folding a flat sheet of material along a curved crease pattern in order to create a three-dimensional shape. It is a creative and innovative way to produce lightweight and geometrically stiff components using only sheet materials. The pavilion presented in this paper integrates this principle in a kit-of-parts system. After being cut out of flat plates, the components get their 3D shape by folding them along a set of predefined curved lines. This deformed geometry, variable in its degree of bending, results in a structurally efficient ‘building block’ that can be combined into different structural configurations depending on its mode of assembly. The components form a weave pattern by connecting them ‘flap to leg’ respectively. As such, adjacent components lock each other into their rigid three-dimensional configuration and a modular shell structure is obtained. When composed of identical components, the obtained structure combines the advantages of rapid fabrication and assembly with an extensive reuse of components. However, the pavilion demonstrates that more geometrically and aesthetically challenging compositions, consisting of a series of custom-made components, are also possible and manageable when using digital fabrication techniques. Furthermore, this paper presents and discusses the digital modelling methods used for the design of the pavilion, as well as the lessons learned by real scale fabrication and assembly.

Curved-line folding is the act of folding paper along a curved crease pattern in order to create a 3D shape, using the combination of folding (plastic deformation) and bending (elastic deformation). Up until now, the use of curved- line folding in architecture has been limited to static applications only, such as metal sculptures or façade panels. However, the elastic deformations that occur when a flat sheet is forced into a curved shape can produce an interesting transformation process. The elastic deformation of one area of the sheet results in the folding and bending of adjacent surface areas as the internal forces and moments are transferred through the curved creases. This paper explains how this behaviour can be used for the design of deployable structures finding their application in the context of adaptive shading. Through the analysis of various crease patterns and the fabrication of small scale models, some important design parameters are defined. This paper demonstrates how the choice of the composition of the crease pattern, the curvature of the creases and the Length-Thickness Ratio affect the resulting kinetic system. The outcome of the analysis is useful for the design of deployable structures based on curved-line folding.

In a context of rapid changes, resource depletion and augmenting waste production, transformable structures facilitate reuse on a structural and component level. Increasing the transformational capacity of spatial structures enables speed and ease of erection and lowers the stacking volume during transportation. Thanks to its unique ability to use structural members under different curvatures and return bent elements to their initial straight or planar geometry, active bending has the potential to expand the existing morphology of transformable structures. Therefore, the authors defined ‘transformable active bending’, integrating high bending deformations in the kinematic systems of transformable structures and thus complementing the transformational capacity of the structure with a bending transformation of the components. However, active bending is essentially a structural principle. Therefore we conducted a parameter study to assess the structural behaviour of a bending component under different curvatures. This paper presents the results of this study along with the case of a bent scissor-arch that illustrates the potential applicability of transformable active bending in mobile architectural applications. The study shows that a range of curvatures exists in which active bending components are structurally efficient, thus allowing transformation or reconfiguration. The kinematic concept thus allows application in structural systems, which will be developed in the scope of future research.