Impact pile driving is the predominant foundation technique for offshore wind turbines. The pressure waves generated during pile driving produce high noise levels that can harm marine life. To protect marine mammals, regulations have been established to limit underwater noise. Recent monopile installations already surpass these limits, necessitating noise mitigation measures to proceed with piling operations. As monopiles and hammers grow larger, noise levels are expected to increase further, escalating the need for effective noise mitigation strategies.

The ongoing evolution of offshore technologies makes it essential to understand the behavior and effectiveness of noise mitigation measures and to develop accurate models for predicting their performance. Currently, limited predictive models exist for most noise mitigation techniques, and it remains unclear how their efficiency will be affected by future piling conditions. As monopiles and hammers increase in size, the noise they produce shifts toward lower frequencies, challenging the effectiveness of current mitigation measures.

This study addresses these knowledge gaps by investigating the performance of existing noise mitigation measures under future piling conditions. A numerical model is developed using the Finite Element Method in COMSOL for near-field analysis, coupled with the Boundary Element Method in SILENCE for far-field analysis. Four categories of noise mitigation measures are examined: the bubble-curtain, a resonator-type mitigation screen, an isolation casing, and pulse prolongation. A critical piling scenario -designed to maximize noise propagation- serves as the baseline for analyzing the individual and combined effectiveness of these measures. Additionally, the scenario is re-simulated with softer soil conditions to assess how environmental factors influence mitigation efficiency.

Key findings reveal that most noise mitigation measures are more effective at attenuating higher frequencies. However, as monopiles become larger and stiffer, natural frequencies decrease, while greater hammer strikes and deeper waters enhance the propagation of lower frequencies. These changes result in a general decline in mitigation efficiency for future piling scenarios. Furthermore, the efficiency of each measure is highly dependent on the frequency content and environmental conditions, such as soil stiffness and water depth. For instance, softer soil conditions significantly alter the effectiveness of certain mitigation measures, with some showing improved performance and others becoming less efficient compared to stiffer soil conditions, and the same goes for combinations of measures.

This study highlights the importance of frequency-specific analyses when applying noise mitigation measures. It underscores the need for tailored approaches to ensure effective noise reduction under varying environmental and piling conditions, offering critical insights into the future of noise mitigation in offshore wind development.

The Vietnamese Mekong Delta, a vital region in the country’s economy, faces the dual challenges of coastal erosion and mangrove degradation, which threaten its long-term sustainability and flood protection capabilities. This research focuses on the coastal area of the Bac Lieu province, characterized by severe erosion and degrading mangrove forests. The study investigates the applicability and potential impacts of hydraulic measures to decrease the net rate of coastal erosion, utilizing numerical modeling with Delft3D and a comprehensive socio-economic analysis. The research hypothesizes that the coastal erosion is partly driven by the placement of a sea-dike to protect aquaculture farms, initiating a positive feedback loop. This loop explains the relation between coastal erosion and mangrove degradation. The proposed hydraulic measures to interfere with this feedback loop are a porous detached breakwater, a shoreface nourishment and the removal of the existing sea-dike. The socio-economic analysis involves questionnaires for local residents, field investigations, and insights from experts in Ho Chi Minh City. While the questionnaires provide inconclusive results, the overall socio-economic impact of the nourishment and breakwater is deemed positive and worth further exploration, particularly in light of the critical role of mangroves in future flood protection. On the other hand it is concluded that the measure of removing the sea-dike will have a negative impact on the coastal area of Bac Lieu due to the intensive land-use and the lack of individual protection of the farms and villages. Therefore, this measure is not modelled. Numerical modeling with Delft3D assesses the hydraulic impact of the breakwater and nourishment on the heavily eroded and partially eroded coasts of Bac Lieu. Results indicate that the nourishment method exhibits a positive effect in reducing net erosion, especially in low energy conditions. Conversely, the porous breakwater shows minimal impact on cumulative erosion and sedimentation. Since this is against all expectations, the validity of the schematization of the porous breakwater is questioned. It is observed that the schematization does not grasp the complex behaviour of the breakwater and therefore it is concluded that Deft3D is not a suitable modelling tool for modelling a porous breakwater. The findings suggest that the nourishment method is a promising approach for reducing erosion in Bac Lieu, benefiting both the heavily and partially eroded coasts. To determine the best course of action for Bac Lieu, further research into the long-term effects and configurations of nourishment is recommended. Additionally, informing local inhabitants on the threats of relative sea-level rise and flood protection, and fostering consensus between the government and engineering agencies on the importance of protecting the Mekong Delta and its mangrove ecosystems are essential steps toward a more resilient future.