The aerodynamics of the multi-rotor system with lifting-devices (MRSL), an innovative concept of wind energy harvesting machine, is preliminary investigated using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) with actuator techniques. In the current setup, turbulent inflow conditions are considered, but inflow wind shear is excluded. Consistent with previous studies, the results demonstrate faster wake recovery of the MRSL compared to its conventional counterpart, namely the wind turbine system without the lifting-devices. Additionally, a set of high-fidelity simulations further reveals that the enhanced wake recovery is robust under both laminar and turbulent inflow conditions, remaining largely unaffected by variations in the ambient turbulence level. The present work provides proof-of-concept evidence that the effectiveness of MRSLs is not significantly hindered by ambient turbulence, motivating future research to evaluate their performance within a realistic atmospheric boundary layer.

Benchmarking numerical models is essential for validating their accuracy and ensuring consistency across simulation platforms. This study presents a comparative benchmark analysis of two widely used Large Eddy Simulation (LES) codes, AMR-WIND and NREL SOWFA-6, focusing on wind turbine rotor performance, wake dynamics, and atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) representation. The evaluation includes an actuator line model (ALM)-based uniform inflow wind turbine simulation and ABL precursors under neutral and unstable conditions. The uniform inflow wake analysis examined differences in wind turbine induction and wake development between the two codes. Additionally, neutral and unstable atmospheric boundary layer precursors were generated for an offshore environment and compared. Results indicate a difference in wake breakdown location between the codes (one contributing factor was the difference in numerical schemes used for the advection terms.) The number of actuator points required for smooth velocity distribution across the rotor was higher for SOWFA-6 than AMR-WIND. In ABL precursors, time-averaged flow fields showed strong agreement, though minor discrepancies in turbulence were observed, particularly in unstable conditions, affecting coherence analysis. The energy distribution across wavenumbers showed a good match between the codes, with slight discrepancies observed in the large and small wavenumber regions. The cutoff wavenumber was found to be similar for both codes. Lateral and vertical coherence at small and large separations were in close agreement for the neutral ABL. However, in the unstable ABL, notable differences in coherence were observed between the codes for separations greater than 40 m.

Inspired by Vortex Generators' success in delaying airfoil stall, this study explores the potential of using Vortex Generators to mitigate stall-induced instability in floating offshore wind turbines at parked and skewed inflow conditions for the first time. Significant improvements are achieved by strategically installing Vortex Generators in the outboard sections of turbine blades and optimizing their parameters (normalized height, length, inflow angle, and chordwise positions) using the particle swarm optimization algorithm and fast optimization method. Numerical results, including both linear and nonlinear stall instability analyses, consistently demonstrate that Vortex Generator arrays effectively mitigate stall-induced instability in the edgewise motion of wind turbines. The yaw misalignment angle range corresponding to the occurrence of edgewise instability is reduced by 29.69% (for NREL 5 MW wind turbine) and 22.95% (for IEA 15 MW wind turbine) while also decreasing limit cycle oscillation amplitudes. Additionally, azimuth angle does not influence optimization results, and implementing Vortex Generators can increase the onset wind speed of stall-induced instability without negatively affecting operating conditions.

To investigate the wake interaction between floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs), this work presents large eddy simulations of two full-scale surging FOWT rotors in tandem. Rotors are modeled using actuator line technique with the possibility of prescribing surge degree-of-freedom. The study examines two main aspects: the different configurations of fixed and surging rotors, and the phase differences of surging motions when both upstream and downstream rotors are surging. Throughout the simulations, different spacings between the two rotors and different inflow conditions (laminar/turbulent) are explored, leading to a large database of highly resolved simulations. The analysis of different fixed–surging configurations suggests that surging motions are generally beneficial to the system's power output (up to 2% at realistic turbulence intensities) compared to the fixed configuration. The power output increase is claimed to be associated with the surging motion itself and the faster wake recovery. Moreover, we discover that the phase differences of the surging motions have subtle effects on the rotor performance of the downstream rotor, especially for the cases with larger spacing between the two surging FOWTs. As an outcome, the relative difference between the power outputs are smaller than 0.4% when the rotor spacing is five rotor diameters. With the aim that this area can be further explored, selected animations, benchmark data, and the numerical solver developed during this study have been made publicly available through this article.

Wind turbine blades in standstill or parked conditions often experience large angles of attack (AoA), where vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) may occur that increase the risk of structural damage. To better understand the VIV of airfoils at high AoA from an aerodynamic perspective, we conducted experimental investigations into the vortex dynamics of a surging airfoil at a 90∘ incidence undergoing forced vibrations. Experiments were conducted at two reduced frequencies (k) to demonstrate the lock-in effect, where the vortex shedding frequency aligns with the motion frequency. Results indicate distinct vortex shedding behaviors: at higher k value of 0.38, downstream wake vortices form when the airfoil is moving upwind, while upstream vortices emerge during the downwind motion, interacting with the downstream vortices and leading to an outward flow. At lower k value of 0.19, the wake remains directed to the downwind side, regardless of the airfoil’s motion direction. Lock-in is evident in both cases, with one vortex pair shed per cycle at lower k and two pairs at higher k. Furthermore, the study examines the influence of vortex dynamics on unsteady aerodynamic loads. The results show that drag peaks when the airfoil moves upwind near the center position of its trajectory; at higher k, negative drag occurs as the airfoil moves downwind near the center, driven by the interactions among convection, turbulent momentum, pressure, and viscous forces. A reduced-order load estimation model for a flat plate is applied to the experimental data, showing good agreement during the upwind motion of the airfoil, which is the design condition for the original flat plate model. However, during the downwind motion, as the flow condition does not match the original flat plate design condition, the circulatory part of the model is modified to account for the presence of two pairs of vortices in the flow field, yielding improved agreement with the drag values determined from the measured flow field. The findings highlight distinct flow patterns and vortex interactions for the two motion cases, offering insights into their impact on aerodynamic loads.

This study examined the effect of vortex generators on the dynamic stall characteristics of thick wind turbine airfoils with a relative thickness of 35% and trailing edge thickness of 10% and 2%. The experiments were conducted in the TU Delft LTT wind tunnel at a Reynolds number of Re=1×10⁶ and dynamic reduced frequency ranging from 0.032 to 0.096. The study investigated the impact of various factors on the dynamic stall characteristics of the airfoils, including the vortex generator's chord position, trailing edge gap, roughness, mean angle of attack, and reduced frequency. The study found that vortex generators delay dynamic stall for thick airfoils by stabilizing the flow during the upstroke phase. However, this can increase the maximum lift overshoot, particularly with flatback airfoils, resulting in a higher drop in lift during dynamic stall. This can potentially increase the dynamic loads on a wind turbine blade due to stall-induced vibrations. The study noted a significant difference in dynamic stall behavior between flatback and non-flatback airfoils. Overall, this research provides valuable insights into the dynamic stall and flow physics characteristics of thick wind turbine airfoils using vortex generators, aiding in more accurate rotor blade design.

With symmetric rotors, tip vortex helices develop regularly before interacting, following the leapfrogging instability. This instability can occur earlier when the helices are radially offset by using blades of different lengths. This study investigates the spatio-temporal development of near-wake behavior for rotors with a significant blade length difference. Large eddy simulations with an actuator line model were conducted on a modified NREL 5MW wind turbine under both laminar and turbulent inflow conditions, to evaluate the impact of blade length differences ranging from 5 to 30 %. The study analyzed the development of tip vortex helices, the onset of leapfrogging, vortex merging, and, ultimately, their three-dimensional breakdown. The analysis is corroborated using a simplified two-dimensional point vortex model. The results show that the leapfrogging process begins immediately downstream of the vortex release when blades of different lengths are considered. The instability growth rate obtained from the 2D vortex model agrees with the LES results. Although the rotor asymmetry accelerates the leapfrogging and, in some conditions, also the vortex merging process, it proves insufficient to cause a large-scale breakdown of the helix system and, therefore, enhance wake recovery. Inflow turbulence, however, plays a larger role in wake recovery, promoting the breakdown of tip helical vortices regardless of rotor symmetry.

The airfoil DU91-W2-150 was investigated in the Low Speed Low Turbulence Tunnel at the Delft University of Technology to study unsteady aerodynamics. This experimental study tested the airfoil under a wide range of angles of attack (AoA) from 0° to 310° at three Reynolds numbers ((Formula presented.)) from (Formula presented.) to (Formula presented.). Pressure on the airfoil surface was measured and particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements were conducted to capture the flow field in the wake. By examining the force coefficient and comparing the wake contours, it shows that an upwind concave surface provides a higher load compared to a convex surface upwind case, highlighting the critical role of surface shape in aerodynamics. When comparing separation at specific locations along the chord for all three (Formula presented.) values, it is observed that as (Formula presented.) increases, separation tends to occur at lower AoA, both for positive stall and negative stall. The examination of the aerodynamic force variation indicates that, during reverse flow, fluctuations are more pronounced compared to forward flow. This is owing to separation occurring at the aerodynamic leading edge (geometric trailing edge) in reverse flow. In terms of vortex shedding frequency, the study found a nearly constant normalized Strouhal number ((Formula presented.)) of 0.16 across various (Formula presented.) and AoA values in fully separated regions, indicating a consistent pattern under these conditions. However, a slight increase in (Formula presented.), between 0.16 and 0.20, was observed for AoA values exceeding 180°, possibly due to the convex curvature of the airfoil in the upwind direction. In conclusion, this research not only corroborates previous findings for small AoA values but also adds new data on the aerodynamic behavior of the DU91-W2-150 airfoil under large AoA values, offering various perspectives on the effects of surface curvature, (Formula presented.), and flow conditions on key aerodynamic parameters.

Large wind turbines face more intricate atmospheric conditions with turbulent coherent structures sized similarly to the rotor diameter, posing loading challenges. The present study assesses twelve distinct wind fields using the Large Eddy Simulations (LES) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Kaimal model scaled to their LES counterpart. The hub height wind speed in the different cases was set to 8.5 m/s (below-rated), 11.5 m/s (at-rated), and 14.5 m/s (above-rated). In a previous study, it was found that the unscaled IEC model-based wind field is conservative and scaled IEC model-based wind fields were found to yield different loads than upon use of LES-based wind fields in different atmospheric stability conditions. The present study aims to understand these differences. Utilizing Spectral Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (SPOD), the original wind fields were decomposed and reconstructed to study the influence of large and small coherent structures represented by their distinct frequencies. SPOD analysis was complemented by wind field spectral analysis considering atmospheric surface layer height, integral length scales, and co-coherence estimates. Integral length scales in the scaled IEC Kaimal model were found to be half of those in unstable atmosphere LES wind fields. The aero-elastic impact on the IEA 22 MW reference wind turbine with a 280 m rotor diameter was evaluated. The analysis reveals that large coherent structures, particularly low-frequency (≤0.06 Hz) ones, significantly impact wind turbine loads, contingent upon atmospheric stratification. Compared to the scaled IEC Kaimal model wind field, the maximum tower fore–aft bending moment and the maximum blade root flap-wise bending moment were found to be higher, for example, by 10% and 5% respectively in an unstable atmosphere during below-rated wind turbine operation. In the same scenario, standard deviation of the tower fore–aft bending moment was found to be higher by up to 50% while standard deviation of the blade root flap-wise bending moment was found to be lower by up to 25%. These findings underscore the critical importance of accurately modeling atmospheric turbulence and its coherent structures for more reliable design and operation of large wind turbines.

This paper studies the dynamic stall characteristics of thick flatback and nonflatback wind turbine airfoils. Two airfoils with a maximum thickness of (Formula presented.) were studied, with trailing edge thicknesses of (Formula presented.) and (Formula presented.), respectively. The static and dynamic experimental measurements were performed in the wind tunnel using surface pressure measurements for clean and tripped airfoils at the Reynolds number of (Formula presented.) and dynamic reduced frequency ranging from (Formula presented.) to (Formula presented.). The effects of the trailing edge gap, roughness, mean angle of attack, and reduced frequency on the dynamic stall characteristics of the airfoils were investigated. The results show that increasing the trailing edge gap delays the onset of dynamic stall. However, the lift loss after the onset of dynamic stall is for the flatback airfoil higher than the sharp trailing edge airfoil. Moreover, the flatback airfoil show higher lift overshoot compared to the sharp trailing edge airfoil in the dynamic stall condition. Increasing the reduced frequency affects the dynamic behavior both airfoils differently.

Denser turbine spacing in wind farms leads to increased wake interactions, causing power losses when each turbine operates under its own greedy control scheme. To mitigate these effects, research is exploring strategies that consider the entire wind farm rather than singular turbines. The so-called helix approach has recently gotten significant attention from the research community. It aims to reduce wake losses through periodic individual pitch control. Wake steering on the other hand uses yaw actuation to laterally deflect the wake away from downstream turbines. In this paper, we adapt and validate a steady-state surrogate model to compute the time-averaged velocity field behind a wind turbine operating with the helix approach. The model is tuned using data from Large Eddy Simulations. We compare the helix model to wake steering and baseline operation in a wind farm case study, demonstrating that the helix approach offers promising benefits under specific wind conditions.

Numerical simulations of wind farms consisting of innovative wind energy harvesting systems are conducted. The novel wind harvesting system is designed to generate strong lift (vertical force) with lifting-devices. It is demonstrated that the tip-vortices generated by these lifting-devices can substantially enhance wake recovery rates by altering the vertical entrainment process. Specifically, the wake recovery of the novel systems is based on vertical advection processes instead of turbulent mixing. Additionally, the novel wind energy harvesting systems are hypothesized to be feasible without requiring significant technological advancements, as they could be implemented as Multi-Rotor Systems with Lifting-devices (MRSLs), where the lifting-devices consist of large airfoil structures. Wind farms with these novel wind harvesting systems, namely MRSLs, are termed regenerative wind farm, inspired by the concept that the upstream MRSLs actively entrain energy for the downstream ones. With the concept of regenerative wind farming, much higher wind farm capacity factors are anticipated. Specifically, the results indicate that the wind farm efficiencies can be nearly doubled by replacing traditional wind turbines with MRSLs under the tested conditions, and this disruptive advancement can potentially lead to a profound reduction in the cost of future renewable energy.

With the increasing size of floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs), stall-induced aeroelastic instability has become a critical issue. This study numerically investigates this instability for FOWTs at stand-still conditions using time and frequency domain approaches. A nonlinear aeroelastic model based on quasi-steady theory and a linearized version are used for time and frequency domain simulations, respectively. Hydrodynamic damping considers both radiation and viscous drag effects. The aeroelastic instability of a stand-still NREL OC3-Hywind 5MW FOWT is analyzed for various inflow yaw misalignment angles. Frequency domain simulation shows rotor edgewise and tower side-side modes exhibit stall-induced instability due to aerodynamic negative damping at specific yaw misalignment and azimuth angles. The platform's yaw mode also shows small negative damping, despite large hydrodynamic damping, while other platform modes remain dynamically stable. Safety margins of FOWTs are analyzed for multi-mode stability, and an active control strategy is proposed to prevent stall-induced instability in all unstable modes. Limit cycle oscillations in the rotor's in-out plane are observed from time domain simulation. Instability regions predicted by both analyses highly overlap, but frequency domain results are more conservative. Blade instability may cause high-frequency vibrations in platform movements with limited amplitudes and severe oscillations in tower structures.

Synthetic wind fields generated for wind turbine simulations do not satisfy incompressibility condition, thus, are not divergence-free. This results in spurious pressure fluctuations when input as a boundary condition to, for example, incompressible large eddy simulations (LES). This study investigates the impact of divergence-free correction on synthetic wind fields and their influence on wind turbine loads. Although divergence-free correction methods exist, they often modify the wind field energy spectrum and unsteady characteristics. Ongoing research addresses these challenges, but the acceptability of such changes and their impact on wind turbine loads has not been adequately studied. This work enforced incompressibility using the Helmholtz–Hodge decomposition, solved through spectral and spatial methods. An efficient Fourier-based spectral method was implemented, validated, and tested against the traditional finite difference method used for the spatial approach. Synthetic wind fields based on three coherence models were analyzed under three turbine operating conditions. An aeroelastic analysis of the IEA (Formula presented.) MW wind turbine was performed in the (Formula presented.) wind fields before and after divergence correction. Spectral analysis revealed a reduction in energy at specific frequencies after the correction for incompressibility. Additionally, the standard deviations of the wind velocities changed (despite similar means), consequently affecting the aeroelastic turbine response. A new iterative correction method is proposed to mitigate these effects, which preserves first- and second-order statistics while enforcing a divergence-free condition. This method is recursively applied, maintaining RMSE changes to the wind field within user-specified bounds. Key findings show that the iterative method yields an excellent match in the longitudinal wind field energy spectrum and a closer match in wind field standard deviation across the rotor, reducing discrepancies in turbine response. Some discrepancies in the lateral and vertical velocity components' higher order statistics were observed. Standard divergence correction (without RMSE constraints) led to a decrease of up to 20% in the tower fore-aft moment, while the proposed method reduces this change to −10%. The tower top side-side moment was found to increase by (Formula presented.) % by using the former approach, while the proposed correction reduced this increase to (Formula presented.) %. Blade root flap-wise bending moment was less affected (up to 5% reduction). Divergence-free wind fields, even with similar statistical properties, influence aeroelastic loads. The proposed method aims to achieve physically consistent and more comparable wind field analyses and resulting wind loads.

As the demand for renewable energy increases, wind turbine rotors will become larger with slender blades. Vortex Generators (VGs) are used for passive flow control to avoid flow separation and reduce unsteady loading on the thick root section of slender blades due to their simplicity, inexpensiveness, and the ability to retrofit them to blades. Aerodynamic load calculations for VGs involve long experimental campaigns or resource intensive CFD calculations. Due to their inherent time-intensive nature aeroelastic optimisation and design tools prefer to use simplified but accurate analysis tools for aerodynamic load calculations of clean airfoils. One such class of tools are viscous-inviscid interaction solvers that use Integral Boundary Layer (IBL) methods for viscous calculations in the boundary layer coupled with an inviscid solver for the rest of the domain. The most popular example of this tool is XFOIL. An engineering model for VGs in IBL methods has previously been developed and implemented in XFOIL. In this research, the model parameters are tuned for implementation in another tool RFOIL based on XFOIL. RFOIL has been developed for accurate and robust analysis of wind turbine airfoils with improvements for thick airfoils and rotational corrections. The aerodynamic performance predicted the VG model in both XFOIL and RFOIL is then validated with an extensive database of airfoil data consisting of airfoils between 21% to 60% thickness, as well as Reynolds numbers between 1 million to 14 million, equipped with and without VGs. Finally, the computation time for the VG model is compared with that for a clean airfoil analysis in the same viscous-inviscid interaction solvers RFOIL and XFOIL. The investigation provides an overview of the usability of the engineering model in airfoil design methodologies in the wind turbine industry.

Traditional methods for determining the load of an object in unsteady cases, such as Control-volume Momentum Integration (CMI) and Noca methods, encounter challenges related to near-body acceleration and pressure estimation. This prompts the need for innovative techniques to overcome these limitations. This study introduces a novel vorticity-based approach to expand classical load determination methods. The numerical results of an unsteady actuator disc (AD) CFD simulation are used to verify and quantify the uncertainty of the three methods. In the AD model, the load is prescribed and used as a source term. The velocity and pressure fields are solved from the Navier-Stokes equations using the open-source CFD package OpenFOAM, which offers a robust validation framework. Systematic examination of the robustness and accuracy of the three methods across various load and motion unsteady scenarios reveals that the proposed vorticity-based method excels in steady-state scenarios, exhibiting the highest level of robustness and accuracy. In contrast, the traditional CMI method proves more robust and accurate in pure motion cases. In scenarios involving static and moving AD with load variations, the new vorticity-based method demonstrates superior robustness and accuracy, mainly when moderate vorticity dynamics. Conversely, in cases with increased vorticity dynamics in the wake, the accuracy of the vorticity-based method decreases, with the CMI method showing superiority.

This study presents a comprehensive numerical analysis of a full-scale horizontal-axis floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) rotor subjected to harmonic surging motions under both laminar and turbulent inflow conditions. Utilizing high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, namely, large eddy simulation (LES) with actuator line model (ALM), this research investigates the rotor performance, wake characteristics, and wake structures of a surging FOWT in detail. The study delves into the influence of varying inflow turbulence intensities, surging settings, and their interplay on the aerodynamic performance and the wake aerodynamics of a FOWT rotor. The results show that, through employing the phase-averaging technique, surge-induced periodic coherent structures (SIPeCS) can be identified in the wake of all the surging cases studied, irrespective of the inflow conditions and the surging settings. Additionally, the findings show that the faster wake recovery observed in the surging cases is not caused by enhancing the instability-induced turbulence level, a previously accepted hypothesis. Instead, the results indicate that it is due to the enhanced advection process resulting from the induction fields of SIPeCS that causes the wake to recover faster. The analysis of rotor performance shows that the time-averaged rotor performances are affected by the intricate aerodynamics arising from the surging motions. With certain surging settings, the time-averaged thrust and the time-averaged power of a surging rotor are found to be simultaneously lower and higher compared with those of a fixed rotor. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of considering both the magnitude of surging and the rate of surging simultaneously to fully characterize the hysteresis load on a surging rotor.

The impact of surge motion on aerodynamic unsteadiness in modern floating offshore wind turbines (FOWT) is a well-recognized phenomenon. When coupled with advanced controllers integrated into these turbines, it can lead to fluctuations in power output. This paper introduces a state-space model that incorporates dynamic inflow effects resulting from surge motion and a PID pitch controller. Additionally, an observation equation is formulated to predict the system power output. Through time series validations, the proposed state-space model demonstrates its ability to accurately capture power responses influenced by surge motions. The developed model serves as a valuable tool for the comprehensive analysis of FOWT, allowing for the exploration of the intricate interplay between unsteady aerodynamics, advanced control mechanisms, and power output.

Vortex generators (VGs) have been widely applied to wind turbines thanks to their potential to increase aerodynamic performance. Due to the complex inflow perceived by a rotor and the proneness to flow separation, VGs on wind turbines usually experience highly unsteady flow. While there are models that exist to simulate the steady effects of VGs, we lack a fast and efficient tool to model the unsteady performance of airfoils equipped with VGs. This paper adopts an unsteady double-wake panel model with viscous–inviscid interaction developed to simulate a vertical axis turbine in dynamic stall, adding the capability of predicting the dynamic aerodynamic performance of VG-equipped airfoils. The results of a series of steady and unsteady cases of an airfoil with different VG configurations in various pitch motions in free and forced transition are verified against experimental data. Results show that the double wake model offers results with sufficient accuracy compared with experimental data to claim the model's validity in a preliminary evaluation of an airfoil's capability to prevent stall with VGs. A few limitations, including the accuracy in prediction the transition location, separation, and reattachment, have been identified for future development.

Using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) with Actuator Line Model (ALM), this work investigates the system of two surging wind turbine rotors operating under realistic turbulent inflow conditions (TI = 5.3%). The two rotors are placed in tandem with a spacing of 5D and the surging motions are harmonic. A widely used torque controlling strategy, MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking), is implemented to ensure a maximium power extraction under all conditions. The rotor performances as well as the field data are surveyed to examine the effectiveness and impacts of the controller. It is found that the power performances of the surging rotors are benefited by the controller with a small margin (∼1%) when the surging motions are moderate. The results also show that the controller reacts much slower than the considered surging frequency, making the power performances of the rotors worse than the quasi-steady predictions (targeted values) and complicating the system dynamics. In general, the implementation of the controller has minor impacts on the wake characteristics; however, the strengths of Surging Induced Periodic Coherent Structures (SIPCS) are found to be enhanced.