Particle-laden turbulent flows occur in various natural and industrial processes, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between the dispersed phase and the carrier flow. This study investigates the fluid dynamics of a simplified car side-view mirror model, experimentally analyzed using the particle tracking velocimetry technique in the laboratories of Delft University of Technology. Experimental measurements are used to validate a computational fluid dynamics model developed in the OpenFOAM environment. The overall objective of the research is to establish a benchmark for validating Eulerian–Lagrangian numerical models in terms of both flow dynamics and particle trajectories. In this study, the validation is limited to the Eulerian fields; validation of the discrete-phase modeling will be addressed in future work.

A method is proposed to obtain full-domain spatial modes based on proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) of particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements taken at different (overlapping) spatial locations. This situation occurs when large domains are covered by multiple non-simultaneous measurements and yet the large-scale flow field organization is to be captured. The proposed methodology leverages the definition of POD spatial modes as eigenvectors of the spatial correlation matrix, where local measurements, even when not obtained simultaneously, provide each a portion of the latter, which is then analyzed to synthesize the full-domain spatial modes. The measurement domain coverage is found to require regions overlapping by 50–75% to yield a smooth distribution of the modes. The procedure identifies structures twice as large as each measurement patch. The technique, referred to as Patch POD, is applied to planar PIV data of a submerged jet flow where the effect of patching is simulated by splitting the original PIV data. Patch POD is then extended to 3D robotic measurement around a wall-mounted cube. The results show that the patching technique enables global modal analysis over a domain covered with a multitude of non-simultaneous measurements.

Numerical simulations of wind farms consisting of innovative wind energy harvesting systems are conducted. The novel wind harvesting system is designed to generate strong lift (vertical force) with lifting-devices. It is demonstrated that the tip-vortices generated by these lifting-devices can substantially enhance wake recovery rates by altering the vertical entrainment process. Specifically, the wake recovery of the novel systems is based on vertical advection processes instead of turbulent mixing. Additionally, the novel wind energy harvesting systems are hypothesized to be feasible without requiring significant technological advancements, as they could be implemented as Multi-Rotor Systems with Lifting-devices (MRSLs), where the lifting-devices consist of large airfoil structures. Wind farms with these novel wind harvesting systems, namely MRSLs, are termed regenerative wind farm, inspired by the concept that the upstream MRSLs actively entrain energy for the downstream ones. With the concept of regenerative wind farming, much higher wind farm capacity factors are anticipated. Specifically, the results indicate that the wind farm efficiencies can be nearly doubled by replacing traditional wind turbines with MRSLs under the tested conditions, and this disruptive advancement can potentially lead to a profound reduction in the cost of future renewable energy.

Accurate modelling of wind turbine wakes is critical for optimizing wind farm performance, but the complexity of wake interactions poses significant challenges. This study presents a two-phase blind test campaign, part of the Horizon Europe TWEET-IE project, designed to benchmark numerical models and investigate wake control strategies using wind tunnel experiments. Conducted with tandem wind turbine models at the Technical University of Munich and the National Technical University of Athens, the tests include inflow, load, power, and wake velocity measurements under controlled conditions. Phase I serves as an open-data benchmarking exercise for a baseline scenario without wake control, while Phase II introduces active individual blade pitch control to the upstream turbine, challenging participants to simulate advanced wake dynamics. This paper reviews Phase I results and details the experimental framework for Phase II, providing a foundation for advancing wake modelling and control in wind energy research.

The present study extends the idea of the vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) “vortex generator mode” for wake recovery on a wind farm scale, working towards the concept of “regenerative wind farming”, where upstream turbines entrain vertical momentum for those downstream. An experimental wind tunnel demonstration of the regenerative wind farming concept for an array of nine H-type VAWTs arranged in a 3×3 grid layout is performed. Volumetric particle tracking velocimetry measures the wake within the simulated wind farm while using two vortex generator modes achieved through a fixed blade pitch. The results demonstrate the strong dependence of the wake topology of a VAWT on the streamwise vorticity system, which can be effectively modified by pitching the blades and subsequently changing the load distribution of the different quadrants of a VAWT. An increase in momentum entrainment in the wake is observed for both vortex generator modes of operation, highlighting the potential of achieving regenerative wind farming. The derived available power within the farm increases by factors of 6.4 and 2.1 for the pitch-in and pitch-out cases compared to the baseline case, respectively, considering potential rotors directly in line with those upwind.

Recording onto a single-frame multiple exposures of the tracer particles has the potential to simplify the hardware needed for 3D PTV measurements, especially when dealing with high-speed flows. The analysis of such recordings, however, is challenged by the unknown time tag of each particle exposure, alongside their unknown organization into physical trajectories (trajectory tag). Using a sequence of two or more illumination pulses with a constant time separation leads to the well-known directional ambiguity problem, whereby it is not possible to distinguish the direction of motion of the tracer particles. Instead, an irregular and asymmetric sequence of time separation for the illumination pulses allows recognizing the time tag of the unique sequence of positions in the image, composing the trace. A criterion is formulated here that recognizes unambiguously the trace pattern, based upon the principle of kinematic similarity. A combinatorial algorithm is proposed whereby a signal-to-noise ratio is introduced for every candidate trace. The approach is combined with an additional criterion that favors trace regularity (minimum velocity fluctuations). The algorithm is illustrated making use of particle motion examples. Furthermore, it is assessed using 3D experimental data produced with time-resolved analysis (single-frame, single-exposure) using the Shake-the-Box method. Traces with a three-pulse sequence yield a detection rate of 85%. The latter declines with the number of pulses. Conversely, the error rate rapidly vanishes with the samples number, which confirms the reliability of trace detection criterion when more pulses are comprised in the sequence.

Within the framework of the European Union Horizon 2020 project HOMER (Holistic Optical Metrology for Aero-Elastic Research), data assimilation (DA) algorithms for dense flow field reconstructions developed by different research teams, hereafter referred to as the participants, were comparatively assessed. The assessment is performed using a synthetic database that reproduces the turbulent flow in the wake of a cylinder in ground effect, placed at the distance of one diameter from a lower wall. Downstream of the cylinder, this wall continues either in the form of a flat steady wall, or of a flexible panel undergoing periodic oscillations; these two situations correspond to two different test cases, the latter being introduced to extend the evaluation to fluid–structure interaction problems. The input data for the data assimilation algorithms were datasets containing the particle locations and their trajectories identification numbers, at increasing tracer concentrations from 0.04 to 1.4 particles/mm³ (equivalent image density values between 0.005 and 0.16 particles per pixel, ppp). The outputs of the DA algorithms considered for the assessment were the three components of the velocity, the nine components of the velocity gradient tensor and the static pressure, defined in the flow field on a Cartesian grid, as well as the static pressure on the wall surface, and its position in the deformable wall case. The results were analysed in terms of errors of the output quantities with respect to the ground-truth values and their distributions. Additionally, the performances of the different DA algorithms were compared with that of a standard linear interpolation approach. The velocity errors were found in the range between 3 and 11% of the bulk velocity; furthermore, the use of the DA algorithms enabled an increase of the measurement spatial resolution by a factor between 3 and 4. The errors of the velocity gradients were of the order of 10–15% of the peak vorticity magnitude. Accurate pressure reconstruction was achieved in the flow field, whereas the evaluation of the surface pressure revealed more challenging. As expected, lower errors were obtained for increasing seeding concentration. The difference of accuracy among the results of the different data assimilation algorithms was noticeable especially for the pressure field and the compliance with governing equations of fluid motion, and in particular mass conservation. The analysis of the flexible panel test case showed that the panel position could be reconstructed with micrometric accuracy, rather independently of the data assimilation algorithm and the seeding concentration. The accurate evaluation of the static pressure field and of the surface pressure proved to be a challenge, with typical errors between 3 and 20% of the free-stream dynamic pressure.

The aerodynamics of the multi-rotor system with lifting-devices (MRSL), an innovative concept of wind energy harvesting machine, is preliminary investigated using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) with actuator techniques. In the current setup, turbulent inflow conditions are considered, but inflow wind shear is excluded. Consistent with previous studies, the results demonstrate faster wake recovery of the MRSL compared to its conventional counterpart, namely the wind turbine system without the lifting-devices. Additionally, a set of high-fidelity simulations further reveals that the enhanced wake recovery is robust under both laminar and turbulent inflow conditions, remaining largely unaffected by variations in the ambient turbulence level. The present work provides proof-of-concept evidence that the effectiveness of MRSLs is not significantly hindered by ambient turbulence, motivating future research to evaluate their performance within a realistic atmospheric boundary layer.

Abstract: This paper presents the first full-scale particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements to analyze the flow field of a car under real driving conditions. The Ring of Fire (RoF) measurement concept, introduced by Terra et al. (Exp Fluids 58:83, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-017-2331-0), is adapted to automotive demands to validate CFD simulations for further improvements of vehicle aerodynamics. The experiment consists of a tunnel setup, where neutrally buoyant helium-filled soap bubbles are used as flow tracers and are illuminated by two high-speed lasers. Four high-speed cameras captured the particles motion in two separate Stereo-PIV configurations with fields of view of 1.3 × 0.6 m² and 2.8 × 2.2 m². Data for a Volkswagen up!, while driving on a test track at a constant speed of 33.33 m/s, was acquired for the wake and the side mirror region and processed with standard multi-pass PIV algorithms, in order to quantify the flow field and estimate limits of the described measurement principle for on-road car aerodynamics. The resulting ensemble averaged velocity fields are compared with CFD simulations, showing agreement for the here considered cases within 7.0–9.7%, based on the root-mean-square error between the experimental and the numerical results. Furthermore, drag calculation from the obtained velocity fields based on moment conservation is performed and the percent difference to wind tunnel measurements reaches values below 3.0%.

The airfoil DU91-W2-150 was investigated in the Low Speed Low Turbulence Tunnel at the Delft University of Technology to study unsteady aerodynamics. This experimental study tested the airfoil under a wide range of angles of attack (AoA) from 0° to 310° at three Reynolds numbers ((Formula presented.)) from (Formula presented.) to (Formula presented.). Pressure on the airfoil surface was measured and particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements were conducted to capture the flow field in the wake. By examining the force coefficient and comparing the wake contours, it shows that an upwind concave surface provides a higher load compared to a convex surface upwind case, highlighting the critical role of surface shape in aerodynamics. When comparing separation at specific locations along the chord for all three (Formula presented.) values, it is observed that as (Formula presented.) increases, separation tends to occur at lower AoA, both for positive stall and negative stall. The examination of the aerodynamic force variation indicates that, during reverse flow, fluctuations are more pronounced compared to forward flow. This is owing to separation occurring at the aerodynamic leading edge (geometric trailing edge) in reverse flow. In terms of vortex shedding frequency, the study found a nearly constant normalized Strouhal number ((Formula presented.)) of 0.16 across various (Formula presented.) and AoA values in fully separated regions, indicating a consistent pattern under these conditions. However, a slight increase in (Formula presented.), between 0.16 and 0.20, was observed for AoA values exceeding 180°, possibly due to the convex curvature of the airfoil in the upwind direction. In conclusion, this research not only corroborates previous findings for small AoA values but also adds new data on the aerodynamic behavior of the DU91-W2-150 airfoil under large AoA values, offering various perspectives on the effects of surface curvature, (Formula presented.), and flow conditions on key aerodynamic parameters.

Wind turbine blades in standstill or parked conditions often experience large angles of attack (AoA), where vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) may occur that increase the risk of structural damage. To better understand the VIV of airfoils at high AoA from an aerodynamic perspective, we conducted experimental investigations into the vortex dynamics of a surging airfoil at a 90∘ incidence undergoing forced vibrations. Experiments were conducted at two reduced frequencies (k) to demonstrate the lock-in effect, where the vortex shedding frequency aligns with the motion frequency. Results indicate distinct vortex shedding behaviors: at higher k value of 0.38, downstream wake vortices form when the airfoil is moving upwind, while upstream vortices emerge during the downwind motion, interacting with the downstream vortices and leading to an outward flow. At lower k value of 0.19, the wake remains directed to the downwind side, regardless of the airfoil’s motion direction. Lock-in is evident in both cases, with one vortex pair shed per cycle at lower k and two pairs at higher k. Furthermore, the study examines the influence of vortex dynamics on unsteady aerodynamic loads. The results show that drag peaks when the airfoil moves upwind near the center position of its trajectory; at higher k, negative drag occurs as the airfoil moves downwind near the center, driven by the interactions among convection, turbulent momentum, pressure, and viscous forces. A reduced-order load estimation model for a flat plate is applied to the experimental data, showing good agreement during the upwind motion of the airfoil, which is the design condition for the original flat plate model. However, during the downwind motion, as the flow condition does not match the original flat plate design condition, the circulatory part of the model is modified to account for the presence of two pairs of vortices in the flow field, yielding improved agreement with the drag values determined from the measured flow field. The findings highlight distinct flow patterns and vortex interactions for the two motion cases, offering insights into their impact on aerodynamic loads.

Image based three-dimensional (3D) particle tracking is currently the most widely used technique for volumetric velocity measurements. Inspecting the flow-field around an object is however, hampered by the latter, obstructing the view across it. In this study, the problem of measurement limitations due to the above is addressed. The present work builds upon the recent proposal from Wieneke and Rockstroh (2024 Meas. Sci. Technol. 35 055303), whereby the information of the occluded lines of sight can be incorporated into the particle tracking algorithm. The approach, however, necessitates methods that accurately evaluate the shape and position of the object within the measurement domain. Methods of object marking and the following 3D registration of a digital object model (CAD) are discussed. For the latter, the iterative closest point registration algorithm is adopted. The accuracy of object registration is evaluated by means of experiments, where marking approaches that include physical and optically projected markers are discussed and compared. Three objects with growing level of geometrical complexity are considered: a cube, a truncated wing and a scaled model of a sport cyclist. The registered CAD representations of the physical objects are included in aerodynamic experiments, and the flow field is measured by means of large-scale particle tracking using helium filled soap bubbles. Results indicate that object registration enables a correct reconstruction of flow tracers within regions otherwise affected by domain clipping as a consequence of obstructed camera lines-of-sight. Finally, the combined visualization of the object and the surrounding flow pattern offers means of insightful data inspection and interpretation, along with posing a basis for particle image velocimetry data assimilation at the fluid-solid interface.

Image based 3D particle tracking is currently the most widely used technique for volumetric velocity measurements. Inspecting the flow-field around an object is however, hampered by the latter, obstructing the view across it. In this study, the problem of measurement limitations due to the above is addressed. The present work builds upon the recent proposal from Wieneke and Rockstroh (2024), whereby the information of the occluded lines of sight can be incorporated into the particle tracking algorithm. The approach, however, necessitates of methods that accurately evaluate the shape and position of the object within the measurement domain. Methods of object marking and the following 3D registration of a digital object model (CAD) are discussed. For the latter, the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) registration algorithm is adopted. The accuracy of object registration is evaluated by means of experiments, where marking approaches that include physical and optically projected markers are discussed and compared. Three objects with growing level of geometrical complexity are considered: a cube, a truncated wing and a scaled model of a sport cyclist. The registered CAD representations of the physical objects are included in aerodynamic experiments, and the flow field is measured by means of large-scale particle tracking using helium filled soap bubbles. Three operating regimes are studied and compared: monolithic, partitioned and object-aware (OA) monolithic. The results indicate that object registration enables a correct reconstruction of particle tracers and strongly reduces the domain clipping typical of the monolithic approach. Furthermore, the dynamical use of all views in the OA monolithic method offers clear benefits compared to the partitioned approach, namely a lower occurrence of ghost particles. Finally, the combined visualization of the object and the surrounding flow pattern offers means of insightful data inspection and interpretation, along with posing a basis for PIV data assimilation at the fluid-solid interface.

In the past years, volumetric velocimetry measurements with helium-filled soap bubbles as tracer particles have been introduced in wind tunnel experiments and performed at large-scale, enabling the study of complex body aerodynamics. A limiting factor is identified in the field of wind engineering, where the flow around ships is frequently investigated. Considering multiple wind directions, the optical access for illumination and 3D imaging rapidly erodes the measurement regions due to shadows and incomplete triangulation. This work formalizes the concepts of volumetric losses and camera redundancy, and examines the performance of multi-directional illumination and imaging for monolithic and partitioned modes. The work is corroborated by experiments around a representative ship model. The study shows that a redundant system of cameras yields the largest measurement volume when partitioned into subsystems. The 3D measurements employing two illumination directions and seven cameras, yield the time-averaged velocity field around the ship. Regions of flow separation and recirculation are revealed, as well as sets of counter-rotating vortices in several stations from the ship bow to the flight–deck. The unsteady regime at the flight–deck is examined by proper orthogonal decomposition, indicating that the technique is suited for the analysis of large-scale unsteady flow features.

The topic of vortex-induced vibrations on a wind turbine blade has recently gained much attention due to its growing size and flexibility. To address this concern, a wind tunnel test was conducted to study the forced plunging and surging motion of a NACA0021 airfoil at 90° angle of attack. Results indicate that vortex lock-in occurred for a motion amplitude of one chord length even for a small frequency ratio (between motion frequency and static Strouhal frequency) of 0.39. Analysis of the drag coefficient, derived from the phase-averaged Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) data, shows that a plunging airfoil experiences higher average loading than a surging airfoil, which is deemed to be more harmful considering the higher loading in the crossflow-direction due to the variation of effective angle of attack.

The aim of the present study is to analyze the performances of unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) and large eddy simulation (LES) approaches in predicting the airflow patterns inside car cabins and to give insight in the design of computational fluid dynamics simulations of a real car cabin. For this purpose, one eddy viscosity-based turbulence model (shear stress transport k-ω) and two subgrid scale models (wall-adapting local eddy-viscosity and dynamic kinetic energy) were tested, and numerical results were compared with particle image velocimetry measurements carried out on a commercial car. The URANS model exhibited great accuracy in predicting the mean flow behavior and was appreciably outperformed by the LES models only far from the inlet sections. For this reason, it was deemed suitable for conducting further analyses, aimed at characterizing the airflow patterns in winter and summer conditions and performing a thermal comfort analysis. The thermal regime was found to have a very little effect on the air flow patterns, once the quasi-steady state regime is achieved; in fact, both in winter and in summer, the temperature field is fairly uniform within the car cabin, making the contribution of buoyancy negligible and velocity fields to be very similar in the two seasons. Findings also reveal that thermal comfort sensation can be different for passengers sharing the same car but sitting on different seats; this aspect should be considered when designing and operating the ventilation system, since the minimum comfort requirements should be met for all the occupants.

Laser light reflection mitigation in Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is crucial for accurate flow field measurements. While numerous methods exist for planar PIV, fewer have been developed for volumetric PIV systems, and in particular for coaxial setups like robotic volumetric PIV. Light reflections in volumetric PIV experiments result in high-intensity regions that corrupt particle detection and analysis. This study presents a novel approach for treating light reflections in robotic volumetric PIV experiments. The proposed method uses image filtering and masking techniques in the wavenumber space to separate particle images from reflection regions. The process involves decomposing the image signal into low- and high-wavenumber components using the 2D discrete Fourier transform (DFT) to then use a high-pass filter to attenuate the intensity of the reflection regions. Finally, a step of automated adaptive masking is applied to remove residual reflection areas that the filtering is not able to eliminate. The proposed approach is tested on experimental data obtained from experiments performed using robotic volumetric PIV on two different geometries: a side-view mirror and a rotating two-blade propeller. Comparison between raw and pre-processed images, as well as particle tracking results, is presented. The results from this data comparison show successful removal of reflection-induced artifacts in instantaneous images by using the spatial Fourier filter automated masking approach. The developed image pre-processing strategy effectively removes unsteady light reflection regions in robotic volumetric PIV images, preventing the appearance of spurious particle tracks and improving the accuracy of flow field measurements. The spatial gaps introduced by the masking procedure can be easily filled in via measurements from multiple directions, which are promptly achieved via the robotic volumetric PIV approach.

Unsteady inlet flow distortion can influence the stability and performance of any propulsion system, in particular for more novel, short and slim intakes of future aero-engine configurations. As such, the requirement for measurement methods able to provide high spatial resolution data is important to aid the understanding of these flow fields. This work presents flow field characterisations at a crossflow plane within a short aeroengine intake using stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (SPIV). A series of tests were conducted across a range of crosswind and high angle of attack conditions for a representative short and slim aspirated intake configuration at two operating points in terms of mass flow rate. The velocity maps were measured at a crossflow plane within the intake at an axial position L/D = 0.058 from where a fan is expected to be installed. The diameter of the measurement plane was 250 mm, and the final spatial resolution of the velocity fields had a vector pitch of 1.5 mm which is at least two orders of magnitude richer than conventional pressure-based distortion measurements. The work demonstrates the ability to perform robust non-intrusive flow measurements within modern intake systems in an industrial wind tunnel environment across a wide range of operating conditions; hence, it is suggested that SPIV can potentially become part of standard industrial testing. The results provide rich datasets that can notably improve our understanding of unsteady distortions and influence the design of novel, closely coupled engine-intake systems.

The scalability of experiments using PIV relies upon several parameters, namely illumination power, camera sensor and primarily the tracers light scattering capability. Given their larger cross section, helium-filled soap bubbles (HFSB) allow measurements in air flows over a significantly large domain compared to traditional oil or fog droplets. Controlling their diameter translates into scalability of the experiment. This work presents a technique to extend the control of HFSB diameter by geometrical variations of the generator. The latter expands the more limited range allowed by varying the relative helium-air mass flow rates. A theoretical model predicts the bubble size and production rate, which is verified experimentally by high-speed shadow visualization. The overall range of HFSB produced in a stable (bubbling) regime varies from 0.16 to 2.7 mm. Imaging by light scattering of such tracers is also investigated, in view of controversies in the literature on whether diffraction or geometrical imaging dominate the imaging regime. The light scattered by scaled HFSB tracers is imaged with a high-speed camera orthogonal to the illumination. Both the total energy collected on the sensor for a single tracer, as well as its peak intensity, are found to preserve scaling with the square of the diameter at object magnification of 10–1 or below, typical of PIV experiments. For large-scale volumetric applications, it is shown that varying the bubble diameter allows increasing both the measurement domain as well as the working distance of the imagers at 10 m and beyond. A scaling rule is proposed for the latter.