In a constantly evolving urban environment, it is important that we design structures with future adaptability in mind. Bridges for example can have very long life spans, but within their life span their use might change or even become obsolete. Disposing of the bridge, which can still be in perfectly good shape, would be a terrible waste of resources.

As a more innovative approach, in this thesis a modular and reusable railway footbridge is designed so that the bridge can be assembled and reassembled based on changing local requirements. To further improve its sustainable character, the choice of main structural material is basalt fiber reinforced polylactic acid, which is a more sustainable alternative to regular FRP.

The conclusion of this thesis is a design which shows methods to demonstrate the modular and demountable character of the bridge, using mainly bolted and pinned connections between the modules. ... Read more

Buiksloterham, situated on the northern banks of the IJ river, is undergoing massive urban redevelopment as it transits from an industrial town to a mix-use development. However the lack of connectivity within the neighbourhood has become an ever more prominent problem for its growing residents and workers. Gemeente Amsterdam has proposed the construction of 7 new bridges in Buiksloterham to improve the local connectivity while staying rooted in circular and sustainable goals laid down in the green masterplan, Groenevisie 2020-2050. As such, the thesis proposes the construction of a novel timber structure embodying the circular vision of design for disassembly, using renewable and bio-based materials. The bridge will also serve as a landmark for the community, symbolizing the potential of timber architecture in the digital era.

Furthermore, as digital technology ushers in the 4th industrial revolution, the growing complexity and inter-dependencies in computational design of structures and buildings is no longer sufficiently represented in static plans (Helm et al., 2017). Since the inception of digital technology into timber fabrication processes in 1980s, it has transformed hand-tools to multi-axis machines, enabled further by parametric models, to produce highly varied components without lost in efficiency (Buri & Weinand, 2013). Despite the high degree of automation in fabrication, the assembly of these structures are still largely manual (Helm et al., 2017), limited by the scale of the components, machines involved and transportation required.

Should the digital information of fabrication and assembly be directly transmitted to the robots and implemented, this would allow for a seamless workflow (Bachmann, 2009) without the intermediary manual process where digital information and assemblage efficiency could be lost. Tapping on the strengths of robotic systems in processing large amount of data, having high level of precision as well as being capable of taking over dirty, dangerous and mundane tasks, this presented the opportunity for integration of Human-Robot Collaboration into the construction system (Reinhardt et al., 2020).

Therefore the focus of this thesis aims to develop meaningful and productive Design-to-Build workflow involving HRC in the construction process of a timber bridge structure in Buiksloterham, Amsterdam. ... Read more

This research aimed to design a new bridge for the city of Rome, Italy, through the support of modern optimisation and decision-making processes that can be implemented to make informed choices regarding aesthetic performance, structural firmness, and environmental impact. The bridge’s design was carried forward considering the city’s plans for the new connection and the relationship with the context dominated by a rationalist architecture. The architectural relationship with the context, the parametric optimization, and the minimization of the material used were the main drivers behind the final design. ... Read more

Fibre reinforced polymer is a new material that is more and more used in civil engineering works. This lightweight and high-strength material comes with a lot of advantages. The application of this lightweight material in bridge structures can result in a reduction of the out-of-service time of railways. On the other hand, the low stiffness of this material offers a big challenge. The stiffness requirements of railway bridges are strict to ensure safe and comfortable passing of trains. This thesis looks at the application of a FRP deck in railway bridges. The literature study describes (1) the material FRP, (2) state-of-the-art in (FRP) bridges and (3) a dynamic model for (railway) bridges.
The main properties of FRP materials are listed including common manufacturing processes. According to a state-of-the-art study two designs are presented: (1) A sandwich deck, commonly used in FRP bridges, and (2) a through deck, commonly used in railway bridges. Furthermore, the requirements and loadings for railway bridges are listed. The dynamic model for railway bridges is based on a mass-spring rigid body system with Rayleigh damping. This model is used to verify the finite element models. A material study is performed to determine the most suitable material properties for FRP railway bridges. Glass fibres and polyester resin are choses based on individual material properties, market prices and common use in civil engineering structures. Foam has no structural integrity but is used as permanent form work. The lay-up of fibres is based on the literature study and differ for flanges and webs. The lay-up for flanges is:
[12.5% - 90° | 12.5% - ±45° | 62.5% - 0° | 12.5% - ±45°]s
The lay-up for webs is:

[25% - 90° | 20% - ±45° | 35% - 0° | 20% - ±45°]s

The volume fraction of both laminates is 50%. These lay ups in combination with the conversion factors and safety factors result in a FRP material suitable for FRP railway bridges. The design study describes the sandwich and through design with the materials from the material study. Two finite element model are made using Sofistik. These finite element models are verified using analytical models. A static and dynamic analysis is performed on both designs. Based on the results from the static analysis the maximum deflection and maximum stresses of the Sandwich Design do not exceed the limits, and the maximum deflection and maximum stresses of the Through Design do exceed the limits. Based on the dynamic analysis both designs do exceed the limits. Furthermore, in consultation with a FRP manufacturer, the laminate thickness must be reduced to ensure both designs are manufacturable. Based on the results of the design study and the requirements presented in the literature study a new design is created. This design includes the following improvements: (1) reduction of the span by transferring the forces in transverse direction, (2) extra height of the design, (3) more webs, (4) extra supports, (5) reduction of the laminate thickness to 30 mm and (6) the use of pre-camber. This final design is transformed into a finite element model. A static and dynamic analysis is performed. Based on the results of the static analysis the maximum deflection and maximum stresses do not exceed the limits. The dynamic analysis results in maximum acceleration of 19.48 m/s2, which exceeds the limit and results in a unity check of 5.57. The final design doesn’t meet the requirements based on the results of the dynamic analysis. An important remark on the dynamic results is made in the discussion. The dynamic load model, consisting of point loads, is applied directly on the bridge deck, omitting the dynamic behaviour of the ballast bed. Taking into account the ballast bed in the dynamic analysis might result in a significant reduction of the maximum acceleration of the bridge deck due to the spreading and damping effect of the ballast bed. In conclusion, according to the results of the static analysis of the final design it is possible to apply a FRP deck in railway bridges. Improvement of the dynamic numerical model is needed before drawing conclusions on the dynamic behaviour of the final design. ... Read more

Over the last decades Amsterdam has grown exponentially north of the IJ, and this trend is expected to continue. The number of commuters across the river is expected to increase, but there is currently no fixed connection for cyclists or pedestrians, which use ponds. The municipality has proposed a bridge across the IJ between the Hamerkwartier and Java Island areas. With a large required heights, two movable bridge parts and very little space, this is a complicated case, both on urban design and technical level. A solution was found in a cable stayed bridge with split bridge decks. This complex construction required additional stabilizing elements and supports, but did fulfill the requirements. The end result of this study serves as an indication that the construction of a bridge on this location is possible and can lead to satisfying results, but in this complex case, simplicity as a starting requirement will probably lead to more pleasing design. ... Read more

United Nations has projected that the current world population of 7.3 Billion People is expected to increase and reach 9.7 Billion by the year 2050, this draft increase in the population will lead to more consumption of resources as well as create immense land pressure. Charles Darwin has suggested that “It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change” Could this land pressure be controlled by re-thinking the existing building typologies ? Hybrid infrastructure could be another key innovation to control the expansion of cities, the idea is not to design more but rather to re-think the current process of infrastructure design to make it more efficient. Is it possible to hybridize ‘the elements of space making’ to create spatial hybrids. Elements that serve multiple purposes behaving in duality. Will the hybridization of these ‘spatial elements’ result in hybridization of building types eventually leading to an evolved hybrid building typology which could reduce land pressure as well as expand the existing vocabulary of the built environment. The research focuses on identifying this language of architecture and then hybridizing it to evolve the built environment by demonstrating a case of a hybrid of a bridge (infra structural element for movement) and a cultural center (infra structural element of habitation) and hence proposes an ‘Inhabitable Bridge’ in the east of Amsterdam, Netherlands. The hybridization of these elements could also lead to questioning ‘the way of looking at things” .For instance, a staircase is always perceived as a means to go from one level to another. This creates a construct in the designers head and limits its perception as a transition element. This new architectural language could forces users to experience and question there pre-conceived constructs by generating arguments within a persons mind eventually questioning ‘types’ and ‘typologies’ in design. ... Read more

This master thesis contains a study on the implementation of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) onto a steel bascule bridge, with the aim of weight reduction. As a case study, the Amalia bridge near Waddinxveen (crossing the Gouwe channel) is used. Two alternative design propositions are presented. The thesis has been subdivided into several parts, which are introduced below. The first part consists of several expositions. It examines the built up of a movable bridge, the material FRP & its properties together with methods of connecting an FRP deck to steel girders and the rules & regulations required for bridge design in the Netherlands. The second part is the design study, which contains an overview of the original Amalia bridge and the designs created based on adaptions of the original. The designs have been made to have a lower total weight than the Amalia bridge. A lower bound approach has been used, not an optimisation. Thus, leaving room for improvement. Two alternatives are discussed: a hybrid and a non-hybrid solution. A hybrid solution is defined as a solution with the full interaction between the FRP-deck and steel girders: allowing for shear transfer between the two and enabling the deck to function as the top flange of the steel girders. A non-hybrid solution only allows for the transfer of vertical forces and limits the transfer of shear, resulting in the structural separation between the deck and the girders. The design study has led to a weight reduction for both the hybrid and non-hybrid solution of 24 and 16% respectively. It can be concluded that both alternatives clearly illustrate the potential of FRP in bridge design, given the objective to reduce weight. It should be noted that in the case of a hybrid solution, the temperature influences become significant. This requires close attention to the details for the connection between the deck and girders. ... Read more

Bridges are of one of the most important infrastructures in the
Netherlands. Due to Dutch landscape bridges of every size and
types are needed in the rural as well as in the urban environment
and often more than one piece is needed for a specific location.
Due to the significant cost of bridge maintenance engineer’s
attention was drawn on Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP). This
material is being used as structural material in steel crosssections
and as architectural material in double curve plates,
produced via a modular production. The primary purpose of
this research is to determine a series of FRP footbridges for the
area of Tanthof Delft in the Netherlands that are manufactured
via one modular mould. In that way, different bridge variations
are produced based on different module combination. Also, the
bridges are constructed all in FRP in order to create a new visual
vocabulary of this material for bridge design by combining the
free-form and structural potentials of this material. Initially the
bridge structure starts as a U-shape bridge with non-structural
railing. Through the use of parametric design the influence of
the different geometrical variables of a bridge are investigated
and the shape involves into a shell-like structure. Furthermore,
municipality data of the demanded bridge’s dimensions are
analysed in order to identify the appropriate module matrix.
Then, based this the modular mould of the Light Resign
Transfer Moulding manufacturing technique is designed. The
project managed to combine the research scopes and full-fill
the set aim, but this combination also limited the potential
of each scope separately. Due to the small dimensions of
the bridges and the need for repetitions the final product is
double curved but not as “fluid” as other examples of roof or
column examples. Also, the different width and lengths of the
bridges provide a complex module matrix and at the same
time a manufacturing mould of many pieces. Finally, by using
the modularity exclusively for the mould design, its potentials
to give solutions on connectivity limits the projects principle on
monocoque structures. ... Read more

This research aims to find a solution for the mobility problem in the city of Rotterdam. By following the ambition and future plans of the municipality of Rotterdam a location is chosen. This location in the west of Rotterdam, between Delftshaven en Waalhaven offers various possibilities for a bridge crossing the Nieuwe Maas river. An analysis into various structural benefits of bridge design an outline for a new bridge is created. Using the strategic guidelines derived from the analysis of the location a future vision of the city of Rotterdam combined with the structural guidelines derived from the analysis in bridge design a new crossing was designed. The new bridge adds value to the direct environment by creating new public space for the residents of Rotterdam. Green quays are created at the banks of the Nieuwe Maas as well as an improved, branched public transport network. The bridge is designed as a vertical lift bridge, which allows cruise ships to pass under the bridge without effort so that they are able to dock at the Wilhelminapier in the center of Rotterdam. ... Read more

Research in using Topology optimisation as a tool to improve the design process of bridge design. The research focuses on implementing Topology optimisation in the design process of architects and engineers. As an example topology optimisation is used to propose a design for a pedestrian bridge in Amsterdam. ... Read more

This thesis focuses on the collaboration of two innovative materials - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) and structural glass – in the design of a (hybrid) footbridge with a 30 meter span. The choice of subject is led by a rising popularity of these materials in bridge design and strengthened by positive recent developments in conceptual small-scale FRP & glass hybrid structures. This research will try to take previous research one step further and will combine the advantages of both materials to reach a structurally efficient bridge design. The research question is as follows: “Can a hybrid pedestrian bridge with a loadbearing structure of FRP and structural glass be designed while making optimal use of the material properties of both materials?”. The design by research process is divided in multiple steps. First of all a theoretical framework is created, with state-of-the-art information about the material properties of glass and FRP. This theoretical framework resulted - via design rules - in several preliminary design variants of which the structurally most efficient, most transparent and safest variant is chosen and subsequently elaborated on. The chosen variant is optimized by using a form-finding and geometric optimization process powered by the Grasshopper plugin Kangaroo and Finite Element software DIANA. The research shows - via its design rules – that a hybrid facetted shell bridge, consisting of glass facets and FRP joints is the most efficient variant. A concave shape is chosen for its “natural” parapet and relatively low share of bending stress in the total stress, while still measuring up to the bridges’ requirements. The concave shape is tessellated with triangular panels due to problems with the – in theory – more efficient hexagonal panels. By shortening the length of connections along each side of a triangular panel, the behavior of hexagonal panels is approximated. Several topologically different triangular tessellation variants have been analyzed using DIANA. The topological variant based on a combination of the equilateral and isosceles triangle proved to result in the lowest stress and deformation values under NEN-based loads and is therefore the most efficient variant. By adding more curvature to the base of the bridge, better shell behavior is achieved, resulting in even lower stress and deformation values. The connection between the panels is made using an FRP embedded sheet, which results in a higher axial stiffness and ultimately also a higher critical load of the bridge. The ideal thickness of this sheet is determined with FEM analysis. A clamped double-pin joint is chosen for its uniformity and adaptability. Finally, an uncertainty analysis is performed to investigate the influence of tolerance related production flaws on stress levels in the joint, which resulted in no issues. ... Read more

This graduation thesis aimed to find an answer to the following question: 'How to design a grid shell for the canopy of a stadium that uses performance based densification to enhance the performance of the structure?'. De Nieuwe Kuip in Rotterdam is used as a case study to put the findings into practice. In order to answer this question a literature study into the application of wood, steel and FRP has been performed. In addition to that, a literature research into types of graded structures has been performed. This research showed that Voronoi and Delaunay are the most promising for the generation of a graded grid structure. Voronoi was chosen as it most resembles the desired look of a bone structure. The densification of the graded structure is based on an imagemap that has been created by analysing several performances. This performance map is a greyscale image that follows the form of the overall shape of the canopy in which lighter colours represent large openings and darker colours represent smaller openings. Three methods to generate a graded Voronoi based on this imagemap were tested. The first method is based on Lloyd’s algorithm, the second method is based on Force Driven Circle Packing and the last method is a Smart Circle Packing based on mesh relaxation techniques and mathematical theorems. The last method proved to be most suitable for the task. Lastly, the created abstract grid of lines was translated to a real structure. It has been structurally optimized and analysed and technical details were created. ... Read more