Adhesively bonded joints have proven to outperform their mechanically fastened joint counterparts, as they present a more structurally efficient method of load transfer, lower stress concentrations and better fatigue performance at reduced weight. In the specific case of the Adhesively Bonded Single Lap Joint (ABSLJ), bending-induced stresses that result from the load path eccentricity add up to the adherend inplane stresses. Moreover, significant peak peel and shear stresses develop at the lap ends of the adhesive and associated adherend interlaminar tensile stresses have a detrimental effect on the joint’s strength. Such joints made of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) adherends bonded with an epoxy adhesive layer sustain a substantial amount of damage, from failure onset to ultimate failure. With the purpose of design structurally efficient and damage tolerant composite joints, it is essential to understand the stress distribution and to accurately predict the damage initiation and propagation events in such joints made of composite materials.

A well-established set of Damage Progression Models (DPMs) in the framework on the Continuum Damage Models (CDMs) were developed as a tool to predict the global response,damage initiation load and ultimate load of the specimens. Hashin 3D, Puck and LaRC05 werethe implemented failure criteria to detect the initiation of damage in the adherends. After thispoint, the elastic properties of the detected damage elements were reduced according to sudden and gradual material degradation models. As for the adhesive, the von Mises criterion was used to detect the damage onset and a linear softening law modeled the material degradation. For the validation of the DPMs, the numerical results were compared against the data of an already published experimental study. Four different adherend layup sequences: [45/90/ − 45/0]2푠, [90/−45/0/45]2푠, [0/45/90/−45]2푠 and [45/0/−45/0]2푠 were studied based on data extracted
from the mechanical testing, Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and Acoustic Emission (AE).

Good correlations between numerical predictions and averaged experimental linear stiffnesses were found, particularly for the two configurations with the outmost ply at 45∘, for which the difference was lower than 5%. The initial non-linear stage of the global response seems to be governed by the longitudinal bending stiffness, while the subsequent linear behavior is controlled by the longitudinal membrane stiffness of the adherends. Regarding damage initiation, numerical predictions showed to be 11.5%, 7.5%, 29.9% and 6.1%, respectively, more conservative for the four analysed configurations, when compared to the AE results, whose established criterion should be further developed. With respect to the ultimate load, the relative differences between predictions and tests showed significant variability among the tested configurations; specifically the deviations were of: 33.2%, 37.4%, -0.4% and -13.71%.

Despite the encouraging results, an inherent shortcoming of CDMs is the representation of damage in a smeared manner due to the homogenization of the anisotropic material in the modeling process. A blended framework using CDMs to model intralaminar failure and discrete crack models to model interlaminar failure and matrix cracking might lead to more realistic damage patterns.

The AerGo is a recreational ultralight water-aircraft, designed to be transportable by bike and operated without a license. This report outlines its concept, characteristics, and feasibility.

The AerGo features a biwing design with swept wings, closed by vertical plates at the tips. It has a constant wing chord of 0.79 m and a wingspan of 12 m. The aircraft is powered by two six-bladed propellers mounted on the top wing and driven by electric engines. The lower wing is attached to a buoyant hull, stabilized by side floats. A paddle is used for taxiing and docking on water, as the aircraft is designed exclusively for water take-off and landing. The pilot sits inside the hull and controls pitch by shifting weight on a swing. Roll control is achieved through wing warping, and yaw by rudders. The total empty mass is 44.7 kg. A multipurpose trailer system facilitates storage, transport, and deployment. The AerGo is designed for single-person assembly and operation and is safe to fly for over 270 days per year.

A market analysis of ultralight aircraft reveals a European fleet of over 25,000, with 500 in the Netherlands. While most ultralights are custom-built, successful models like the Woopyfly and Lazair have seen large-scale production. The AerGo’s mobility, ease of use, and hydrodynamic capabilities position it competitively. A conservative estimate projects annual sales of 20 units, with 25% for the Dutch market and 75% for Europe. Expansion to North America is a future opportunity.

The design is driven by weight and energy efficiency, with batteries forming a significant part of the empty weight. The primary energy requirement comes from cruise flight, optimized through airfoil selection. The NACA 6415 airfoil, chosen for its high lift coefficient at zero angle of attack, minimizes drag and maximizes cruise efficiency. The hydrodynamic model, based on DSDS data, estimates a take-off speed of 9.9 kg and a 170 m take-off distance. The computed climb rate is 1.43 m/s, reaching a cruise altitude of 150 m in 105 seconds.

The engine and battery design prioritize take-off power while ensuring a minimum flight time of 60 minutes. With a cruise speed of 15 m/s, the AerGo has a range of 40 km. The pilot’s longitudinal position, optimized at 1.6 m, ensures stability. The upper wing has a positive stagger of 0.45 m forward, creating a seesaw effect that smooths weight-shift control. Roll is controlled by wing warping, and yaw by rudders placed at the wing tips. A 15° wing sweep enhances rudder effectiveness, allowing safe operation on a single engine.

The aircraft’s lightweight structure consists of a skin-on-frame design, with a nylon-covered carbon fiber wing weighing 11.3 kg and a dacron-covered carbon fiber hull at 4 kg. Noise reduction is achieved with six-blade propellers, keeping levels below 40 dB at 100 m distance. Approximately 74% of the aircraft is recyclable, with a carbon footprint of 800 kg CO2 per unit.

At an estimated price of €20,000 per unit and annual sales of 20, the break-even point is 9.5 years, with a projected return on investment of €700,000 after 12 years. Further analysis is required on cost budgeting, structural impact resistance, and user assembly instructions to ensure feasibility.