This thesis presents the design and analysis of future 100% renewable integrated transport and energy systems based on electricity and hydrogen as energy carriers. In which Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are used for transport, distributing energy and balancing electricity demand. Passenger cars in Europe are parked on average 97% of the time. They are used for driving only 3% of the time (<300 hours per year). So passenger car FCEVs can be used for energy balancing and electricity generation when parked and connected to the electricity grid, in the socalled Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) mode. In Europe around 15.3 million passenger vehicles were sold in 2019 [1]. Using the “Our Car as Power Plant” analogy of Van Wijk et al. [2], multiplying each vehicle by 100 kW of future installed electric power in it, this would equal to 1,530 GW of annual sold power capacity in passenger vehicles. This is more than the existing 950 GW installed power generation capacity in Europe in 2019 [3]. The theoretical potential to use passenger FCEVs for power production, with the present low usage for driving, seems to be large. Commercially available FCEVs use proton exchange membrane fuel cells systems to generate electricity from oxygen from the air and the hydrogen stored in on-board tanks at 700 bar. In parallel to the fuel cell, a small high voltage (HV) battery pack is connected. The HV battery is used for regenerative braking and provides additional power for acceleration. This combination of fuel cell and HV battery can deliver almost every kind of electrical energy service, from balancing intermittent renewables to emergency power back-up. By using both the HV battery and fuel cell of a few up to tens of thousands of aggregated FCEVs in combination with large-scale hydrogen storage, kW to GW-scale power generation and energy storage from seconds to seasons can be achieved.

Future national electricity, heating, cooling and transport systems need to reach zero emissions. Significant numbers of back-up power plants as well as large-scale energy storage capacity are required to guarantee the reliability of energy supply in 100 percent renewable energy systems. Electricity can be partially converted into hydrogen, which can be transported via pipelines, stored in large quantities in underground salt caverns to overcome seasonal effects and used as electricity storage or as a clean fuel for transport. The question addressed in this paper is how parked and grid-connected hydrogen-fueled Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles might balance 100 per cent renewable electricity, heating, cooling and transport systems at the national level in Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, France and Spain? Five national electricity, heating, cooling and transport systems are modeled for the year 2050 for the five countries, assuming only 50 percent of the passenger cars to be grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, the remaining Battery Electric Vehicles. The grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle fleet can always balance the energy systems and their usage is low, having load factors of 2.1–5.5 percent, corresponding to an average use of 190–480 h per car, per year. At peak times, occurring only a few hours per year, 26 to 43 percent of the grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle are required and in particular for energy systems with high shares of solar energy, such as Spain, balancing by grid-connected Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles is mainly required during the night, which matches favorably with driving usage.

Renewable, reliable, and affordable future power, heat, and transportation systems require efficient and versatile energy storage and distribution systems. If solar and wind electricity are the only renewable energy sources, what role can hydrogen and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have in providing year-round 100% renewable, reliable, and affordable energy for power, heat, and transportation for smart urban areas in European climates? The designed system for smart urban areas uses hydrogen production and FCEVs through vehicle-to-grid (FCEV2G) for balancing electricity demand and supply. A techno-economic analysis was done for two technology development scenarios and two different European climates. Electricity and hydrogen supply is fully renewable and guaranteed at all times. Combining the output of thousands of grid-connected FCEVs results in large overcapacities being able to balance large deficits. Self-driving, connecting, and free-floating car-sharing fleets could facilitate vehicle scheduling. Extreme peaks in balancing never exceed more than 50% of the available FCEV2G capacity. A simple comparison shows that the cost of energy for an average household in the Mid Century scenario is affordable: 520–770 €/year (without taxes and levies), which is 65% less compared to the present fossil situation. The system levelized costs in the Mid Century scenario are 71–104 €/MWh for electricity and 2.6–3.0 €/kg for hydrogen—and we expect that further cost reductions are possible

In recent years, the European Union (EU) has set ambitious targets toward a carbon-free energy transition. Many studies show that a drastic reduction in greenhouse gas emissions-at least 90% by 2050-is required. In the transition toward a sustainable energy system, solar (or green) hydrogen plays many important roles, as it is a clean and safe energy carrier that can also be used as a fuel in transportation and in electricity production. To understand and steer the transition from the current energy system toward an integrated hydrogenbased energy and transport system, we propose a framework that integrates a technical and economic feasibility study, a controllability study, and institutional analysis. This framework is applied to the Car as Power Plant (CaPP) concept, which is an integrated energy and transport system. Such a system consists of a power system based on wind and solar power, conversion of renewable energy surpluses to hydrogen using electrolysis, hydrogen storage and distribution, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that provide mobility, electricity, heat, and water. Controlling these vehicles in their different roles and designing an appropriate organizational system structure are necessary steps in the feasibility study. Our proposed framework for a future 100% renewable energy system is presented through a case study.

The world's future energy supply will include intermittent renewable sources, such as solar and wind power. To guarantee reliability of supply, fast-reacting, dispatchable and renewable back-up power plants are required. One promising alternative is parked and grid-connected hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in "Vehicle-to-Grid" systems. We modified a commercial FCEV and installed an external 9.5 kW three-phase alternating current (AC) grid connection. Our experimental verification of this set-up shows that FCEVs can be used for mobility as well as generating power when parked. Our experimental results demonstrate that present-day grid-connected FCEVs can respond to high load gradients in the range of -760 % s^-1 to + 730 % s^-1, due to the parallel connection of the high voltage battery and the fuel cell stack. Virtual power plants composed of multiple grid-connected FCEVs could perform higher power gradients than existing fast-reacting thermal power plants with typical power gradients of 1.67 % s^-1. Hydrogen consumption in 9.5 kW AC grid-connected mode was 0.55 kg h^-1, resulting in a Tank-To-Grid-AC efficiency of 43% on a higher heating value basis (51 % on a lower heating value basis). Direct current to alternating current efficiency was 95 %.

This paper presents the results of a demonstration project, including building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) solar panels, a residential building and a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) for combined mobility and power generation, aiming to achieve a net zero-energy residential building target. The experiment was conducted as part of the Car as Power Plant project at The Green Village in the Netherlands. The main objective was to assess the end-user's potential of implementing FCEVs in vehicle-to-grid operation (FCEV2G) to act as a local energy source. FCEV2G field test performance with a Hyundai ix35 FCEV are presented. The car was adapted using a power output socket capable of delivering up to 10 kW direct current (DC) to the alternating current (AC) national grid when parked, via an off-board (grid-tie) inverter. A Tank-To-AC-Grid efficiency (analogous to Tank-To-Wheel efficiency when driving) of 44% (measured on a Higher Heating Value basis) was obtained when the car was operating in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode at the maximum power output. By collecting and analysing real data on the FCEV power production in V2G mode, and on BIPV production and household consumption, two different operating modes for the FCEV offering balanced services to a residential microgrid were identified, namely fixed power output and load following. Based on the data collected, one-year simulations of a microgrid consisting of 10 all-electric dwellings and 5 cars with the different FCEV2G modes of operation were performed. Simulation results were evaluated on the factors of autonomy, self-consumption of locally produced energy and net-energy consumption by implementing different energy indicators. The results show that utilizing an FCEV working in V2G mode can reduce the annual imported electricity from the grid by approximately 71% over one year, and aiding the buildings in the microgrid to achieve a net zero-energy building target. Furthermore, the simulation results show that utilizing the FCEV2G setup in both modes analysed, could be economically beneficial for the end-user if hydrogen prices at the pump fall below 8.24 €/kg.

Reliable and affordable future zero emission power, heat and transport systems require efficient and versatile energy storage and distribution systems. This paper answers the question whether for city areas, solar and wind electricity together with fuel cell electric vehicles as energy generators and distributors and hydrogen as energy carrier, can provide a 100% renewable, reliable and cost effective energy system, for power, heat, and transport. A smart city area is designed and dimensioned based on European statistics. Technological and cost data is collected of all system components, using existing technologies and well-documented projections, for a Near Future and Mid Century scenario. An energy balance and cost analysis is performed. The smart city area can be balanced requiring 20% of the car fleet to be fuel cell vehicles in a Mid Century scenario. The system levelized cost in the Mid Century scenario is 0.09 €/kWh for electricity, 2.4 €/kg for hydrogen and specific energy cost for passenger cars is 0.02 €/km. These results compare favorably with other studies describing fully renewable power, heat and transport systems.

How can we analyse fuel cell stack voltage degradation with transient phenomena and are existing durability indicators as distance driven or operating hours still relevant in commercial FCEVs, used for driving and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) purposes? The mean stack voltage drop is measured over fuel cell operating time and produced electricity in 4 commercial Hyundai ix35 FCEVs. The experiments show that a durability indicator expressed solely in operating hours, distance or produced energy is not relevant for combined driving, V2G and idling load profiles. An indicator consisting of several usage parameters is recommended.

This article presents a detailed thermodynamic case study based on the Willem-Alexander Centrale (WAC) power plant in the Netherlands towards retrofitting SOFCs in existing IGCC power plants with a focus on near future implementation. Two systems with high percentage (up to 70%) biomass co-gasification (based on previously validated steady state models) are discussed: (I) a SOFC retrofitted IGCC system with partial oxy-fuel combustion CO₂ capture (II) a redesigned highly efficient integrated gasification fuel cell (IGFC) system with full oxy-fuel CO₂ capture. It is concluded that existing IGCC power plants could be operated without major plant modifications and relatively high electrical efficiencies of more than 40% (LHV) by retrofitting SOFCs and partial oxy-combustion CO₂ capture. In order to apply full scale CO₂ capture, major process modification and redesign needs to be carried out, particularly in the gas turbine unit and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). A detailed exergy analysis has also been presented for both the systems indicating significant efficiency improvement with the utilization of SOFCs. Additional discussions have also been presented on carbon deposition in SOFCs and biomass CO₂ neutrality. It is suggested that scaling up of the SOFC stack module be carried out gradually, synchronous with latest technology development. The thermodynamic analysis and results presented in this article are also helpful to further evaluate design challenges in retrofitted IGCC power plant systems for near future implementation, gas turbine part load behaviour, to devise appropriate engineering solutions and for techno-economic evaluations.

In a 2050 fully renewable national electricity, heating and road transport system primary energy supply comes from non-dispatchable power generation such as solar and wind energy. Both negative and positive dispatchable balancing power plants need to balance the system. This work investigates whether parked and grid connected (Vehicle-to-Grid) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) fueled with pure hydrogen can replace positive dispatchable balancing power plants. These power plants, often gas turbine based, are likely to operate at low capacity factors in future. A simulation for a 2050 scenario is based on German 2015 renewable electricity data and assumes a passenger car mix of 40% FCEVs and 60% Battery Electric Vehicles. On average 0.9 million FCEVs with Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) output of 10 kWe would be required during evening and night time and approximately 6 million during the annual peak shortage hour to balance the system at all times. These numbers represent respectively 2% and 14% of the total 2015 German passenger car stock and have the potential to replace all positive dispatchable power plants in future.

In order to facilitate the deployment of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen (FCH) technologies, KnowHy project aims to provide specific training modules and practical sessions to the widest possible audience of technicians, in an appropriate format and at affordable cost through an online methodology. This paper describes the goals and advances of the KnowHy project considering the targeted audiences. The deployment of an innovative training methodology based on an e-learning platform specific for FCH technologies is explained next, as well as the key features of the project and its different modules.

Fuel cells and hydrogen technologies have the potential to decarbonize both transport and energy sectors across the EU. Today, several initiatives and projects have successfully proven this high potential by means of research as well as demonstration actions. However, the acceptance on these technologies for public and private stakeholders and especially for the general public is a critical aspect which remains lagging behind technical progresses. Thus, increasing awareness in a wide sense in the EU as a whole becomes a key task to achieve the expected deployment of these technologies and their generalized implementation as foreseen in the different EU and member states energy roadmaps. This paper describes the state of the art in the advances made towards awareness and public acceptance on fuel cells and hydrogen technologies inside the different initiatives carried out at the moment. After that, it enters to describe the goals and advances of the recently started HY4ALL project which is devoted to align efforts from the main stakeholders in the EU and to nurture from existing initiatives to show its society the potential, opportunities, strengths and benefits of these technologies by means of dedicated communication strategies and actions. These communication strategies are implemented by means of a series of tools and resources to achieve wider penetration considering the features and specificities of targeted audiences including a reference web platform, a 'hydrogen and society roadshow', demonstration items and end applications as well as a study on macro benefits on these technologies and dedicated debates across eleven member states.