Several studies have shown the potential of strain-hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) as a self-reinforcing printable mortar. However, papers published on the development of three-dimensional printable SHCC (3DP-SHCC) often report a discrepancy between the mechanical properties of the cast and printed specimens. This paper evaluates the effect of each successive phase of the printing process on the mechanical properties of the composite. To this end, materials were collected at three different stages in the printing process, i.e., after each of mixing, pumping, and extruding. The collected 3DP-SHCC materials were then cast in specimen moulds and their mechanical properties after curing were obtained. The resulting findings were juxtaposed with the mechanical properties of the specimens derived from a fully printed 3DP-SHCC element, and our findings indicate that while the density and the compressive strength are not significantly influenced by the printing process, the flexural and tensile strength, along with their associated deflection and strain, are strongly affected. Additionally, this research identifies the pumping phase as the primary phase influencing the mechanical properties during the printing process.@en

Since the advent of three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP), several studies have shown the potential of strain hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) as a self-reinforcing printable mortar. However, only a few papers focus on achieving sufficient buildability when developing printable SHCC. This study investigates the role of the particle size distribution (PSD) in relation to the buildability properties of the mixture in the fresh state and strain hardening properties in the hardened state. To this end 6 mixtures were designed based on optimal particle packing with the application of the Modified Andreasen and Andersen Model. The two mix designs showed the highest displacement at maximum stress were selected for further development of their fresh state rheological properties. This was achieved by addition of a viscosity modifying agent (VMA) and a super plasticizer (SP) and through material analysis by means of ram extrusion tests. Further fresh material characterization on the final two 3DP-SHCC mix designs was attained by the deployment of uniaxial unconfined compression tests (UUCT), Vicat tests and Buildability tests. After successful printing of the two SHCC composites, the compressive strength, the 4-point bending strength and the uniaxial tensile strength and strain were determined at an age of 28 days. The research shows that optimization of the PSD in a 3DP-SHCC mix design results in an improvement of the buildability, but can introduce decreased pumpability and strain hardening capacity.@en

Previous research has shown that the material properties of a three-dimensional printed strain hardening cementitious composite (3DP-SHCC) can significantly vary, depending on the printing system with which it is produced. However, limited research has been performed on the reproducibility of hardened mechanical properties under identical printing conditions. In this study, the consistency of hardened properties, including compressive strength, flexural strength and deflection, and tensile strength and strain, was tested from materials printed during three separate but identical printing sessions. The research shows that with 3DP-SHCC, significant variations in mechanical properties between printing sessions can be expected.@en

New additive manufacturing methods for cementitious materials hold a high potential to increase automation in the construction industry. However, these methods require new materials to be developed that meet performance requirements related to specific characteristics of the manufacturing process. The appropriate characterization methods of these materials are still a matter of debate. This study proposes a rheology investigation to systematically develop a printable strain hardening cementitious composite mix design. Two known mixtures were employed and the influence of several parameters, such as the water-to-solid ratio, fibre volume percentage and employment of chemical admixtures, were investigated using a ram extruder and Benbow-Bridgwater equation. Through printing trials, rheology parameters as the initial bulk and shear yield stress were correlated with variables commonly employed to assess printing quality of cementitious materials. The rheology properties measured were used to predict the number of layers a developed mixture could support. Selected mixtures had their mechanical performance assessed through four-point bending, uni-axial tensile and compressive strength tests, to confirm that strain hardening behaviour was obtained. It was concluded that the presented experimental and theoretical framework are promising tools, as the bulk yield stress seems to predict buildability, while shear yield stress may indicate a threshold for pumpability.@en

Over the past few years, several studies have shown the potential of three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) for applications in building and civil engineering. However, only a few studies have compared the properties of the fresh printing material and the quality of the printed elements from different printing facilities. Variations in the manufacturing conditions caused by the mixing procedures, the pumping device and the nozzle shape and/or dimensions may influence the quality of the printed elements. This study investigates the differences in the fresh and hardened properties of a printing material tested in two different printing facilities. The pump pressure and temperature experienced by the printing material during the printing session are monitored real-time. Hardened properties are measured for the printed elements, such as the bending capacity, the apparent density, and the air void content. The research shows that two different printing facilities may result in printed elements with relative differences in flexural strength and volumetric density of 49% and 7%, respectively.@en

Extrusion based additive manufacturing of cementitious materials has demonstrated strong potential to become widely used in the construction industry. However, the use of this technique in practice is conditioned by a feasible solution to implement reinforcement in such automated process. One of the most successful ductile materials in civil engineering, strain hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) have a high potential to be employed for three-dimensional printing. The match between the tailored brittle matrix and ductility of the fibres enables these composites to develop multiple cracks when loaded under tension. Using previously developed mixtures, this study investigates the physical and mechanical performance of printed SHCC. The anisotropic behavior of the materials is explored by means of mechanical tests in several directions and micro computed tomography tests. The results demonstrated a composite showing strain hardening behavior in two directions explained by the fibre orientation found in the printed elements. Moreover, the printing technique used also has guaranteed an enhanced bond in between the printed layers.@en