The use of 3D printed polymers in the form of lattice reinforcement can enhance the mechanical properties of cementitious composites. Methods like Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) 3D printing enable their creation, but this process has a large (negative) effect on their mechanical properties, with a large dependency on the printing direction. Continuing on our previous study concerned with modelling the anisotropic behaviour of 3D printed polymeric reinforcement, this work focuses on the reinforcement-matrix bond. Because of the layer-by-layer filament extrusion process of the 3D printing technique, the edges of FDM 3D printed polymers are typically composed of ellipses. Based on this, it is hypothesized that morphological effects as a result of the 3D printing technique enhance the bond between 3D printed reinforcement and cementitious matrix: The elliptic geometry potentially facilitates interlocking with the cementitious mortar, thereby possibly enhancing the bond behaviour in certain directions. To investigate the geometrical directional-dependent features at the edges of 3D printed polymers in more detail, micro-scale models are developed. Geometrical effects induced by different printing configurations are studied. The simulation results are verified through meso-scale pull-out experiments. The interlocking effects as a result of the 3D printing technique show to be significant seeing a bond strength increase of up to 56 % in one of the print configurations compared to the direction without any geometrical effects.

Cement-based materials (CBMs) are multiscale composites whose macroscopic properties largely depend on their micro/nanoscale features. Micro and nanomechanical properties of CBMs are typically characterized using local techniques such as nanoindentation. Compared with nanoindentation, the nanoscratch allows for continuous measurement of CBMs to acquire more comprehensive and reliable nanomechanical information, which has provided a powerful tool for the characterization of CBMs at nanoscale. However, previous reviews on the application of nanoscratch in CBMs are relatively scarce and lack detailed guidance regarding specimen preparation methods and the testing procedure. This review presents a detailed discussion of specimen preparation procedures and requirements, measurements, and data analysis methods for nanoscratch testing applied to CBMs. Then, the nanomechanical properties derived from nanoscratch tests, including hardness, friction coefficient, elastic recovery ratio and fracture properties, have been summarized and discussed. Furthermore, the current uses of nanoscratch technique in CBMs, including characterization of nanoscale micorstructure, interface, tribological features, and fracture properties, are elaborated. On the nanoscale, the nanomechanical properties are employed for phase identification and to obtain the corresponding volume fractions. In addition, nanoscratch is widely utilized to identify the width, hardness, and fracture toughness of the interfacial transition zones, and to distinguish the interface between unreacted phases and hydration products. The combination of nanoscratch and other advanced techniques, such as atomic force microscopy, backscattered electron imaging, and acoustic emission to characterize the nanoscale micorstructures of CBMs is further discussed, which contributes to improving the accuracy of nanoscratch test results and broadens their applicability. In addition, some perspectives on testing methods, data analysis, and multifunctional applications of nanoindentation technology are proposed. This review aims to assist researchers in developing robust and reliable protocols for nanoscratch testing, thereby advancing the deeper understanding of the nanoscale features of CBMs.

3D printing is becoming increasingly popular in the construction sector. 3D printing offers the potential to reduce costs, construction time and construction waste. However, due to its high cement content, 3D printable concrete more expensive to produce. The article includes a brief literature survey on the possibility of using cement and aggregate substitutes in concrete mixtures and their impact on fresh composite properties and identifies a research gap. Herein, we propose the use of waste copper slag as a replacement for cement in 3D printable concrete. We examine the effect of replacing cement with copper slag at 5 and 10% on fresh properties of cementitious mortar. The results show that copper slag improves the workability of the mixture and lowers the design yield strength up to 44%, thereby facilitating printing. Even 30% higher fresh compressive strengths were also obtained, which suggest that the buildability of mortars containing copper slag will be improved.

Auxetic cementitious cellular composites (ACCCs) possess advantageous mechanical properties in static tests, such as high fracture resistance and efficient energy dissipation. However, little attention has been given to understanding the impact resistance of ACCCs. In this study, two typical elliptical-shaped ACCC specimens, P25 and P50, were designed with major axis lengths increased by 25 % and 50 %, respectively, compared to the reference P0 with circular holes. The specimens were architected through additive manufacturing (AM) assisted casting, and subjected to low-velocity impacts from Schmidt hammer with a consistent initial impact energy. Their impact resistance was assessed based on impact responses, including rebound value, absorption energy, localized damage in the impact zone, crack propagation, and peak reaction force during impact. Besides single impact tests, multiple impact tests were conducted until specimens failed. Their impact results were compared with those of the reference (P0). A high-speed camera was further used for Digital Image Correlation (DIC) to analyze strain distribution of the specimens during the brief impact period. Furthermore, a numerical model considering strain rate effects was developed to simulate the impact behavior of ACCCs, demonstrating good agreement with experimental data. On this basis, a parametric analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of impact energy, relative density, specimen size, and RVE size on impact resistance. Both experimental and numerical results indicate that ACCCs demonstrate superior impact resistance compared to the reference (P0). They exhibit mitigated localized damage in the impact zone and increased contact stiffness. Moreover, ACCCs show greater endurance under multiple impacts and higher accumulated energy absorption until failure. This enhanced performance is attributed to auxetic behavior, which draws more material into the impact zone for dispersing energy and reducing localized damage, thereby maintaining overall structural integrity. Specifically, P50 exhibits higher impact resistance than P25 due to the enhanced auxetic behavior resulting from its greater aspect ratio. This creates a greater bending moment to enable more ligaments to dissipate energy through rotation-induced plastic deformation, thereby reducing localized damage. Considering the widespread availability of cementitious materials, this study highlights the potential of ACCCs for lightweight, high-performance protective structural materials for impact mitigation in infrastructure.

The microstructure of cement paste determines the overall performance of concrete and therefore obtaining the microstructure is an essential step in concrete studies. Traditional methods to obtain the microstructure, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray computed tomography (XCT), are time-consuming and expensive. Herein we propose using Denoising Diffusion Probabilistic Models (DDPM) to synthesize realistic microstructures of cement paste. A DDPM with a U-Net architecture is employed to generate high-fidelity microstructure images that closely resemble those derived from SEM. The synthesized images are subjected to comprehensive image analysis, phase segmentation, and micromechanical analysis to validate their accuracy. Findings demonstrate that DDPM-generated microstructures not only visually match the original microstructures but also exhibit similar greyscale statistics, phase assemblage, phase connectivity, and micromechanical properties. This approach offers a cost-effective and efficient alternative for generating microstructure data, facilitating advanced multiscale computational studies of cement paste properties.

This paper aims at enhancing tensile properties of strain-hardening alkali-activated composite (SHAAC) by using a flow-induced casting approach. Ca(OH)₂-activated ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) was used as binder material and viscosity modifying admixture (VMA) was applied to adjust the rheology. Combined X-ray computed tomography (X-CT) scanning and image analysis were proposed to obtain the spatial distribution of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers in hardened SHAAC prepared with various VMA dosages using different (i.e. conventional and flow-induced) casting approaches. The results revealed optimal rheological properties (yield stress of 192 Pa, plastic viscosity of 17.6 Pa·s) of paste for fiber distribution and alignment. The SHAAC with fiber distribution and orientation factors of 0.91 and 0.83 was prepared using the flow-induced casting approach with a WMA dosage of 1.0 %. Its ultimate tensile stress and tensile strain capacity reached 6.1 MPa and 5.5 %, respectively, which was 37 % and 36 %, more than the conventionally cast SHAAC. In the end, an empirical equation for ultimate tensile strength and strain capacity prediction with high determination coefficient was proposed based on fiber distribution, orientation, and porosity.

This study develops a novel class of 3D-printed auxetic lattice reinforced foamed cementitious composites, aimed at overcoming the brittleness and low strength of conventional foamed cement while maintaining lightweight characteristic. Polymeric auxetic lattices (mechanical metamaterials with negative Poisson's ratio) were 3D printed and embedded in foamed cement matrix. Static and cyclic compression tests were conducted to evaluate load-bearing capacity, energy absorption, and failure mechanisms. X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis was performed to examine interfacial behavior between the lattice and cement matrix. Results indicate that 3D auxetic lattices significantly enhance strength and ductility through multidirectional lateral confinement, where the energy absorption increased by up to 2.8 times compared to unreinforced foamed cement at a density of 550 kg/m³. Specifically, the 3D auxetic lattices reinforced composites showed pronounced resilience under cyclic loading, exhibiting gradual and ductile damage evolution while sustaining performance beyond 700 cycles. In comparison, 2D auxetic lattices which provide negative Poisson's ratio only in-plane are less effective in reinforcing foamed cement matrix. Additionally, although non-auxetic lattice increased load-carrying capacity to some degree, the corresponding composites structure showed localized shear failure and premature structural degradation under cyclic loading. Overall, the active reinforcement effect of auxetic lattices enables the development of advanced foamed cementitious composites for impact mitigation, blast protection, and buoyant components requiring energy absorption and repeated-load resilience.

Anisotropy in 3D-printed concrete structures has persistently raised concerns regarding structural integrity and safety. In this study, an architected 3D printing strategy, “stitching”, was proposed to mitigate anisotropy in 3D-printed Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC). This approach integrates the direction-dependent tensile resistance of extruded ECC, the mechanical interlocking between three-dimensional layers, and a deliberately engineered interwoven interface system. As a result, the out-of-plane direction of the printed structure can be self-reinforced without external reinforcements. Four-point bending tests demonstrated that the “stitching” pattern induced multi-cracking and flexural-hardening behavior in the out-of-plane direction, boosting its energy dissipation to 343 % of the reference “parallel” printing and achieving 48.6 % of cast ECC. Additionally, micro-CT scanning and acoustic emission tests further validated the controlled crack propagation enabled by the engineered interface architecture. The proposed strategy has been proven to substantially alleviate anisotropy and enhance structural integrity.

Auxetic cementitious cellular composites (ACCCs) exhibit hinge-type recoverable deformation during auxetic behavior phase, a rare pseudo-elastic property in cementitious materials. However, their low load-bearing capacity during this phase restricts their use in high-load applications. This study developed ACCCs using strain-hardening cementitious composites (SHCCs) with short (SHCC-SS) and long (SHCC-LS) softening tails, fabricated by additive manufacturing-assisted casting. Uniaxial compression tests employing Digital Image Correlation (DIC) evaluated their compressive behavior, peak strength, Poisson's ratio variation, and energy dissipation. Cyclic tests after pre-compression assessed their recoverable deformation resilience, with fiber bridging at joint cracks examined using digital optical microscope. Results were compared to a reference using fiber-reinforced cementitious materials with strain softening (SS). Compared to the reference (SS), ACCCs using SHCC mixtures exhibit superior load-bearing capacity and stable auxetic behavior under compression. After self-contact, they maintain a negative Poisson's ratio up to a considerably high compressive strain, preventing splitting failure and preserving structural integrity. This is because incorporating SHCC enables greater joint rotation by promoting multiple cracks with strain hardening, which delays primary crack formation and reduces its opening. During cyclic tests, P1-shaped ACCCs with SHCC-LS and SHCC-SS enhance the elasticity modulus of recoverable deformation by 4.8 and 3.0 times, respectively, compared to SS. SHCC-LS outperforms SHCC-SS in compressive resilience due to its prolonged softening tail, which improves fiber bridging in primary cracks and increases rotational stiffness in hinge joints. SHCC mixtures with initial strain hardening and extended softening enable scalable design of advanced auxetic cementitious materials across various load levels.

When serving in the marine environment, reinforced concrete structures are prone to be attacked by chloride ingress, which generally co-occurs with varying humidity and temperature changes. Therefore, considering the interaction between moisture transport and heat transfer, and their individual and coupling effects on chloride transport, this paper presents a novel numerical modelling framework for chloride penetration in concrete under different environmental conditions. In this framework, a novel thermal conductivity model and temperature-depended chloride binding isotherms are also developed, considering the heterogeneous characteristics of concrete. The proposed model is validated against a series of experimental data. By assuming the cyclic humidity and temperature boundary conditions as trigonometric type, this study further discusses the effect of average value, amplitude value and period length of cyclic environmental changes on the chloride transport in concrete. The results indicate that variation in humidity and temperature averages can alter the peak values of chloride content but have less effect on the chloride penetration depth. However, the increased humidity amplitude could significantly promote both the peaks and the penetration depths due to intensive chloride convection caused by moisture transport. This paper is supposed to provide a better understanding of chloride penetration in concrete under a realistic engineering environment.

Circulating fluidized bed fly ash (CFBFA) is a by-product from the combustion in circulating fluidized bed boiler in power plants. Herein, to resourcefully utilize CFBFA and reduce cement consumption, the CFBFA was ground (GCFBFA) and used to prepare low-carbon lightweight foamed concrete (LFC) for subgrade filling. The effect of GCFBFA substitution ratio on the blended cement binder and LFC was investigated. It was found that incorporation of 30 wt% GCFBFA stimulated cement hydration and produced more hydration products including C-S-H and AFt, thus enhancing the performance of binder. For LFC, GCFBFA improved the stability of fresh LFC slurry and the air-void structure by increasing the rheological properties of binder, thus improving the mechanical properties and durability including water stability and freeze-thaw resistance. The extension of setting time and reduction in hydration heat due to GCFBFA can be beneficial for transportation and massive construction. For subgrade filling, the GCFBFA content is limited to 50 wt% for LFC with wet density of 600 kg/m3 (D600) and up to 70 wt% for D700 and D800. Life cycle assessment (LCA) showed that a reduction of 52.3% in global warming potential and 43.2% in total cumulative energy consumption for the production of LFC was achieved when GCFBFA replaced 70% of cement.

This paper aims to improve the activity of high-calcium fly ash (FA) by using a wet carbonation treatment process. The results indicated that carbonation products, i.e. calcite, were attached to the surface of FA, which accelerated cement hydration primarily at the early stage. Significant improvement of early age strength and a decrease in setting time were therefore found in blended cement. Additionally, carbonation significantly reduced the amount of free calcium oxide (f-CaO) in FA, increasing its volume stability. Krstulovic-Dabic model was used to simulate the hydration process of blended paste, and the distribution of pore sizes and hydration products were also measured. Together with the filler effect of nano-sized calcite, the formation of carboaluminate phases refined the pore structure of blended paste. Furthermore, the amounts and mechanical properties of outer hydration products in blended paste increased.

Herein, a three-dimensional numerical model based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for fresh concrete is developed to predict the slump and slump flow. Fresh concrete is considered as a non-Newtonian fluid, and its rheological behaviour is characterised by the Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley (H-B) models, respectively. Experiments are also conducted to validate the reliability and accuracy of this model. Through parametric investigations, the influence mechanisms of relevant factors on the flow characteristics of fresh concrete are analysed and discussed. The results show that the model predictions agree well with the experimental results. The predicted results obtained using the H-B rheological model are more accurate compared to the Bingham model, with average relative errors of 1.73 %, 2.03 % and 3.95 % for slump, slump flow and T₅₀₀, respectively. The flowability of fresh concrete is negatively correlated with power index, yield stress and consistency, while it is positively correlated with density. Grey relational analysis indicates that density has the greatest effect on the results of slump and slump flow, followed by yield stress and consistency, and finally the power index. The CFD-based numerical model presented in this study provides an important approach for better understanding the flow behaviour of fresh concrete from a rheological perspective.

Self-healing concrete using encapsulated healing agent has shown great potential in enhancing concrete durability. However, the capsules are expensive to make and can lower the mechanical properties of concrete. In this study, a new type of manufactured aggregate that employs waste-derived fly ash cenosphere as a carrier of healing agent (SH-CS) was designed and produced. The effect of SH-CS incorporation on hydration, engineering properties and self-healing efficiency of cement mortar was systematically evaluated, with a special focus on self-healing mechanism through the analysis of the mineral composition of the healing product. The results indicate that the prepared SH-CS has good stability in and compatibility with cement mortar. The addition of SH-CS has small influence on the fresh properties of cement mortar and less negative effect on compressive strength at the hardened stage compared to the existing study. By replacing 3 wt.% of fine aggregate with SH-CS, up to 71% of the crack opening area of mortar specimens with a crack width of about 0.3 mm was self-healed after 28 days of water exposure. The self-healing behaviour of SH-CS led to a maximal 41% drop in water adsorption and contributed to the recovery of flexural strength. The healing products precipitated on the fracture surface were mainly composed of amorphous C-S-H and Calcite. It can be estimated that incorporating SH-CS in concrete would result in only a moderate (∼29%) rise in cost for C40 concrete.

Temperature Stress Testing Machine (TSTM) is a universal testing tool for many properties relevant to early-age cracking of cementitious materials. However, the complexity of TSTMs require heavy lab work and thus hinders a more thorough parametric study on a range of cementitious materials. This study presents the development and validation of a Mini-TSTM for efficiently testing the autogenous deformation (AD), viscoelastic properties, and their combined results, the early-age stress (EAS). The setup was validated through systematic tests of EAS, AD, elastic modulus, and creep. Besides, the heating/cooling capability of the setup was examined by tests of coefficient of thermal expansion by temperature cycles. The results of EAS correspond well to that of AD, which qualitatively validates the developed setup. To quantitatively validate the setup, a classical viscoelastic model was built, based on the scenario of a 1-D uniaxial restraint test, to predict the EAS results with the tested AD, elastic modulus, and creep of the same cementitious material as the input. The predicted EAS matched the testing results of Mini-TSTM with good accuracy in 6 different cases. The viscoelastic model also provided quantitative explanations for why variations in early AD do not influence the EAS results. The testing and modelling results together validate the developed Mini-TSTM setup as an efficient tool for studying early-age cracking of cementitious materials. At the end, the potential limitations of the Mini-TSTM are discussed and its applicability for concrete with aggregate size up to 22 mm is demonstrated.

Vascular self-healing concrete (SHC) has great potential to mitigate the environmental impact of the construction industry by increasing the durability of structures. Designing concrete with high initial mechanical properties by searching a specific arrangement of vascular structure is of great importance. Herein, an automatic optimization method is proposed to arrange vascular configuration for minimizing the adverse influence of vascular system through a reinforcement learning (RL) approach. A case study is carried out to optimize a concrete beam with 3 pores (representing a vascular network) positioned in the beam midspan within a design space of 40 possibilities. The optimization is performed by the interaction between RL agent and Abaqus simulation environment with the change of target properties as a reward signal. The results illustrates that the RL approach is able to automatically enhance the vascular arrangement of SHC given the fact that the 3-pore structures that have the maximum target mechanical property (i.e., peak load or fracture energy) are accessed for all of the independent runs. The RL optimization method is capable of identifying the structure with high fracture energy in the new optimization task for 4-pore concrete structure.

Het her berekenen van bestaande constructies is een discipline die meer gespecialiseerde kennis, ervaring en gereedschappen vereist dan het ontwerpen van nieuwe constructies. Voor het beoordelen van bestaande constructies met schadelijke ASR zijn geen vigerende rekenregels voorhanden waardoor de beoordeling om expert judgement vraagt. Het invullen van enkel een rekenregel is niet mogelijk en daarom zijn in dit rapport technische handvatten gegeven. Door een beoordelingsproces van grof naar fijn is een beoordeling mogelijk waarin steeds een afweging wordt gemaakt tussen inspanning en kosten met in acht neming van de constructieve veiligheid. Ondanks dat de FIBmodelcode 2020 stelt dat ASR een verwaarloosbaar effect heeft op de dwarskrachtcapaciteit, is er in de binnen- en buitenlandse literatuur wel degelijk beïnvloeding op kritische scheurvorming en capaciteit.

Polyvinyl alcohol fiber reinforced engineered cementitious composite (ECC) using piezoelectric polymer film has attracted significant interest due to its energy harvesting potential. This work provides a theoretical model for evaluating the energy harvesting of bendable ECC using surface-mounted polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). In the mechanical part, concrete damage plasticity model based on the explicit dynamic analysis was utilized to simulate the dynamic flexural behavior of ECC beam under different dynamic loading rates. The mechanism of force transfer through the bond layer between the PVDF film and ECC specimen was simulated by a surface-surface sliding friction model wherein the PVDF film was simplified as shell element to reduce computational cost. Then, the electromechanical behavior of the piezoelectric film was simulated by a piezoelectric finite element model. A simplified model was also given for a quick calculation. The theoretical model was verified with the experimentally measured mechanical and electrical results from the literature. Finally, a parametric analysis of the effects of electromechanical parameters on the efficiency of energy harvesting was performed. The verified theoretical model can provide a useful tool for design and optimization of cementitious composite systems for energy harvesting application.

3D printed polymeric reinforcement has been found able to improve the ductility of cementitious materials. However, due to the hydrophobic nature of commonly used 3D printing polymers, the bonding strength between the 3D printed polymers and cementitious matrix is extremely weak, which potentially hinders the mechanical performance of the reinforced composites. This work aims to improve the bonding properties by applying surface modifications on the 3D printed reinforcement, and eventually enhance the mechanical performance of the reinforced cementitious composites. Three types of surface coatings ingredients: epoxy resin (EP), sand sprinkled epoxy (SA) and short steel fibers sprinkled epoxy (SF) were used. Pull-out experiments are performed to study the bonding properties of the 3D printed reinforcement with different coatings. Then, uniaxial tensile and four-point-bending experiments are used to investigate the mechanical performance of the reinforced cementitious composites. A lattice type numerical model is applied to simulate the pull-out and tensile tests. The pull-out experiments indicate that the SA and SF reinforcement achieved approximately two times higher bonding strength than the uncoated and EP reinforcement. The tensile and flexural results suggest that the cementitious composites with SA and SF reinforcement achieved significantly better ductility (manifested by strain-hardening and deflection-hardening behavior) than the composites with uncoated and EP reinforcement. The numerical simulation results highly agree with the experimental findings, and further confirmed that the improved reinforcement-mortar bonding strength is the determinative factor that enhanced the composites mechanical performance. The findings of this work suggest that the sand and steel fiber surface coatings can effectively enhance the ductility of cementitious composites reinforced by 3D printed polymers.

In the race to achieve global climate neutrality, carbon intensive industries like the clinker and cement industry are required to decarbonize rapidly. The environmental impacts related to potential transition pathways to low-carbon systems can be evaluated using prospective life cycle assessment (pLCA). This study conducts a pLCA for future global clinker production, integrating long-term transition pathways from the IMAGE integrated assessment model (IAM) to maintain global consistency. It systematically modifies the ecoinvent v3.9.1 database using the Python library premise to create future database versions representing future clinker production embedded in a future economy according to a 3.5°C-baseline, a 2°C-compliant and a 1.5°C-compliant scenario. Our study indicates that climate change impacts of clinker production may decrease from about 1.03 kg CO₂-eq/kg clinker in 2020 to 0.94 (3.5°C-baseline), 0.20 (2°C-compliant), and 0.16 (1.5°C-compliant) kg CO₂-eq/kg clinker in 2060 for the global average. This corresponds to a 10% (3.5°C-baseline), 81% (2°C-compliant) and 84% (1.5°C-compliant) decrease by 2060 compared to 2020. Under these scenarios, global clinker production alone would require 5%–11% of the remaining end-of-century carbon budget for the 2 °C and 1.5 °C-target, respectively. While the climate change impacts are substantially reduced, our study also indicates that the transition pathways shift the burden towards other impact categories, such as ionizing radiation, ozone depletion, material resources and land use. Developing IAM-compatible scenarios for more product groups helps to increase the coherence of pLCA studies. As this study is based on an IAM heavily reliant on carbon capture and storage and bioenergy, future research should explore the effects of different technology pathways and alternative mitigation strategies.