A highly pure biomethane stream (≈97% CH₄) was produced continuously under halo-alkaline conditions (pH > 9, 0.6 M Na⁺) from complex alkaline organic waste residue originating from biopolymer extraction from sewage sludge. During the proof-of-concept operation, the substrate was degraded with similar efficiency (40% of the volatile solids, VS) compared to neutral conditions (36% of the VS). Operational data was utilised in a technical evaluation to identify bottlenecks for full-scale implementation at an early stage of process development and for comparison to conventional biogas upgrading using pressure swing and membranes. Initially identified bottlenecks for alkaline fermentation were related to overcautious assumptions, while others could be technically solved. Alkaline fermentation offers an attractive method for supplying increasingly needed high-purity biomethane using various recalcitrant substrates that have undergone alkaline pre-treatment. This is more feasible than the conventional ex-situ biogas upgrading. Next, upscaling steps for alkaline fermentation should be pursued. Strategies for integrated CO₂ sequestration and nutrient recovery are outlined, which will offer additional benefits in the future.

Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) are ubiquitous in biological wastewater treatment (WWT) technologies like activated sludge systems, biofilm reactors, and granular sludge systems. EPS recovery from sludge potentially offers a high-value material for the industry. It can be utilized as a coating in slow-release fertilizers, as a bio-stimulant, as a binding agent in building materials, for the production of flame retarding materials, and more. P recovered within the extracted EPS is an intrinsic part of the recovered material that potentially influences its properties and industrial applications. P is present in EPS in different speciation (e.g., P esters, poly-P, ortho-P, etc.). Such P species are already intensively used in the chemical industry to enhance thermal stability, viscoelasticity, emulsification, water-holding capacity, and many other properties of some natural and petroleum-derived polymers. The translation of this knowledge to EPS is missing which prevents the full utilization of phosphorus in EPS. This knowledge could allow us to engineer EPS via phosphorus for specific target properties and applications. In this review, we discuss how P could affect EPS properties based on experiences from other industries and reflect on how these P species could be influenced during the EPS extraction process or in the WWTPs.

In this research, a method has been developed to measure the charge density of complex biopolymer systems. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), obtained from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), are such a complex mixture of biopolymers and have shown to be difficult to characterize. One important characteristic for the development of applications such as green batteries, heavy metal sorption, and use as a bio flocculant is the charge density. Alginate was used as a model compound because of its well-characterized structure and known charge density. The method was optimized by varying the sample and titrant concentrations, and the titration speed. A sample concentration of 0.01 M was shown to provide the most accurate results, and the titrant concentration and titration speed had less effect on the measured charge density. With the optimal measurement settings, the method was validated and used to determine differences in charge density among EPS extracts from various wastewater treatment sludges. The different EPS samples have varying charge densities between 1.18 and 3.57 mmol/g, and the first derivative of the pH during titrations showed significant differences between samples. The resulting protocol provides a robust, reproducible, and precise approach for analyzing the EPS charge density. Furthermore, it expands the potential of conductometric methods, as systematic differences in the pH derivative curves were observed.

Phosphorous not only needs to be removed to prevent eutrophication of wastewater effluent receiving surface water bodies, but it also has to be recovered as a scarce finite reserve. Phosphorus chemical precipitation as NH₄MgPO₄·6H₂O, Ca₃(PO₄)₂, or Fe₃(PO₄)₂ ·8H₂O is the most common method of phosphorus recovery from phosphorus-rich streams. These minerals ideally form under neutral to alkaline pH conditions, making acidic streams problematic for their formation due to the need for pH adjustments. This study proposes FePO₄ .2H₂O (strengite-like compounds) recovery from acidic streams due to its simplicity and high efficiency, while also avoiding the need for pH-adjusting chemicals. The effect of initial pH, temperature, Fe (III) dosing rates, and Fe (II) dosage under different oxidation conditions (pO₂ = 0.2, 1, 1.5 bar, different H₂O₂ dosing rates) on phosphorus recovery percentage and product settleability were evaluated in this study. The precipitates formed were analyzed using optical microscopy, SEM, XRD, SQUID, Raman, and ICP. Experiments showed that Fe (III) dosing achieved phosphorus recovery of over 95 % at an initial pH of 3 or higher, and the product exhibited poor settleability in all initial pH (1.5-5), and temperature (20–80 °C) tests. On the other hand, Fe (II) dosage instead of Fe (III) resulted in good product settleability but varying phosphorus recovery percentages depending on the oxidation conditions. The novelty of the study lies in revealing that the Fe (II) oxidation rate serves as a crucial process-design parameter, significantly enhancing product settleability without the requirement of carrier materials or crystallizers. The study proposes a novel strategy with controlled Fe²⁺-H₂O₂ dosing, identifying an Fe (II) oxidation rate of 4.7 × 10⁻⁴ mol/l/min as the optimal rate for achieving over 95 % total phosphorus recovery, along with excellent settleability with a volumetric index equal to only 8 ml/gP.

Wastewater treatment technologies opened the door for recovery of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), presenting novel opportunities for use across diverse industrial sectors. Earlier studies showed that a significant amount of phosphorus (P) is recovered within extracted EPS. P recovered within the extracted EPS is an intrinsic part of the recovered material that potentially influences its properties. Understanding the P speciation in extracted EPS lays the foundation for leveraging the incorporated P in EPS to manipulate its properties and industrial applications. This study evaluated P speciation in EPS extracted from aerobic granular sludge (AGS). A fractionation lab protocol was established to consistently distinguish P species in extracted EPS liquid phase and polymer chains. ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used as a complementary technique to provide additional information on P speciation and track changes in P species during the EPS extraction process. Findings showed the dominance of organic phosphorus and orthophosphates within EPS, besides other minor fractions. On average, 25% orthophosphates in the polymer liquid phase, 52% organic phosphorus (equal ratio of mono and diesters) covalently bound to the polymer chains, 16% non-apatite inorganic phosphorus (NAIP) precipitates mainly FeP and AlP, and 7% pyrophosphates (6% in the liquid phase and 1% attached to the polymer chains) were identified. Polyphosphates were detected in initial AGS but hydrolyzed to orthophosphates, pyrophosphates, and possibly organic P (forming new esters) during the EPS extraction process. The knowledge created in this study is a step towards the goal of EPS engineering, manipulating P chemistry along the extraction process and enriching certain P species in EPS based on target properties and industrial applications.

The study evaluated the combined phosphorus, nitrogen, methane, and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) recovery from aerobic granular sludge (AGS) wastewater treatment plants. About 30% of sludge organics are recovered as EPS and 25–30% as methane (≈260 ml methane/g VS) by integrating alkaline anaerobic digestion (AD). It was shown that 20% of excess sludge total phosphorus (TP) ends in the EPS. Further, 20–30% ends in an acidic liquid waste stream (≈600 mg PO₄-P/L), and 15% in the AD centrate (≈800 mg PO₄-P/L) as ortho-phosphates in both streams and is recoverable via chemical precipitation. 30% of sludge total nitrogen (TN) is recovered as organic nitrogen in the EPS. Ammonium recovery from the alkaline high-temperature liquid stream is attractive, but it is not feasible for existing large-scale technologies because of low ammonium concentration. However, ammonium concentration in the AD centrate was calculated to be 2600 mg NH₄-N/L _– and ≈20% of TN, making it feasible for recovery. The methodology used in this study consisted of three main steps. The first step was to develop a laboratory protocol mimicking demonstration-scale EPS extraction conditions. The second step was to establish mass balances over the EPS extraction process on laboratory and demonstration scales within a full-scale AGS WWTP. Finally, the feasibility of resource recovery was evaluated based on concentrations, loads, and integration of existing technologies for resource recovery.

Sulfide is frequently suggested as a tool to release and recover phosphate from iron phosphate rich waste streams, such as sewage sludge, although systematic studies on mechanisms and efficiencies are missing. Batch experiments were conducted with different synthetic iron phosphates (purchased Fe(III)P, Fe(III)P synthesized in the lab and vivianite, Fe(II)₃(PO₄)₂*8H₂O), various sewage sludges (with different molar Fe:P ratios) and sewage sludge ash. When sulfide was added to synthetic iron phosphates (molar Fe:S = 1), phosphate release was completed within 1 h with a maximum release of 92% (vivianite), 60% (purchased Fe(III)P) and 76% (synthesized Fe(III)P). In the latter experiment, rebinding of phosphate to Fe(II) decreased net phosphate release to 56%. Prior to the re-precipitation, phosphate release was very efficient (P released/S input) because it was driven by Fe(III) reduction and not by, more sulfide demanding, FeS_x formation. This was confirmed in low dose sulfide experiments without significant FeS_x formation. Phosphate release from vivianite was very efficient because sulfide reacts directly (1:1) with Fe(II) to form FeS_x, without Fe(III) reduction. At the same time vivianite-Fe(II) is as efficient as Fe(III) in binding phosphate. From digested sewage sludge, sulfide dissolved maximally 30% of all phosphate, from the sludge with the highest iron content which was not as high as suggested in earlier studies. Sludge dewaterability (capillary suction test, 0.13 ± 0.015 g²(s²m⁴)⁻¹) dropped significantly after sulfide addition (0.06 ± 0.004 g²(s²m⁴)⁻¹). Insignificant net phosphate release (1.5%) was observed from sewage sludge ash. Overall, sulfide can be a useful tool to release and recover phosphate bound to iron from sewage sludge. Drawbacks -deterioration of the dewaterability and a net phosphate release that is lower than expected-need to be investigated.

To prevent eutrophication of surface water, phosphate needs to be removed from sewage. Iron (Fe) dosing is commonly used to achieve this goal either as the main strategy or in support of biological removal. Vivianite (Fe(II) ₃ (PO ₄ ) ₂ * 8H ₂ O) plays a crucial role in capturing the phosphate, and if enough iron is present in the sludge after anaerobic digestion, 70–90% of total phosphorus (P) can be bound in vivianite. Based on its paramagnetism and inspired by technologies used in the mining industry, a magnetic separation procedure has been developed. Two digested sludges from sewage treatment plants using Chemical Phosphorus Removal were processed with a lab-scale Jones magnetic separator with an emphasis on the characterization of the recovered vivianite and the P-rich caustic solution. The recovered fractions were analyzed with various analytical techniques (e.g., ICP-OES, TG-DSC-MS, XRD and Mössbauer spectroscopy). The magnetic separation showed a concentration factor for phosphorus and iron of 2–3. The separated fractions consist of 52–62% of vivianite, 20% of organic matter, less than 10% of quartz and a small quantity of siderite. More than 80% of the P in the recovered vivianite mixture can be released and thus recovered via an alkaline treatment while the resulting iron oxide has the potential to be reused. Moreover, the trace elements in the P-rich caustic solution meet the future legislation for recovered phosphorus salts and are comparable to the usual content in Phosphate rock. The efficiency of the magnetic separation and the advantages of its implementation in WWTP are also discussed in this paper.

Kinetics of iron reduction, formation of vivianite and the microbial community in activated sludge from two sewage treatment plants (STPs) with low (STP Leeuwarden, applying enhanced biological phosphate removal, EBPR) and high (STP Cologne, applying chemical phosphate removal, CPR) iron dosing were studied in anaerobic batch experiments. The iron reduction rate in CPR sludge (2.99 mg-Fe g VS ⁻¹ h ⁻¹ ) was 3-times higher compared to EBPR sludge (1.02 mg-Fe g VS ⁻¹ h ⁻¹ ) which is probably caused by its 3-times higher iron content. Accordingly, first order rate constants in both sludges are comparable (0.06 ± 0.001 h ⁻¹ in EBPR vs 0.05 ± 0.007 h ⁻¹ in CPR sludge), thus potential rates in both sludges are comparable. The measured Fe(III) reduction rates suggest that all iron in STP Leeuwarden and STP Cologne can be turned over within 15 h and 44 h respectively. Mössbauer spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated vivianite formation within 24 h in both sludges. After 24 h, 53% and 34% of all iron were bound in vivianite in the EBPR and CPR sludge respectively. Next generation sequencing (NGS) showed that the microbial community in the CPR sludge comprised more genera with iron-oxidizing and iron-reducing bacteria. Iron reduction and vivianite formation commence once activated sludge is exposed to oxygen free conditions. Our study reveals that the biogeochemistry of iron in STPs is very dynamic. By understanding the interactions between iron and phosphate crucial processes in modern sewage treatment, such as chemical phosphate removal or phosphate recovery from sewage sludge, can be optimized.

Biogenic iron oxides (BioFeO) formed by Leptothrix sp. and Gallionella sp. were compared with chemically formed iron oxides (ChFeO) for their suitability to remove and recover phosphate from solutions. The ChFeO used for comparison included a commercial iron-based adsorbent (GEH) and chemically oxidized iron precipitates from groundwater. Despite contrary observations in earlier studies, the batch experiments showed that BioFeO do not have superior phosphate adsorption capacities compared to ChFeO. However, it seems multiple mechanisms are involved in phosphate removal by BioFeO which make their overall phosphate removal capacity higher than that of ChFeO. The overall phosphate removal capacity of Leptothrix sp. deposits was 26.3 mg P/g d.s., which could be attributed to multiple mechanisms. This included adsorption on the solid phase (6.4 mg P/g d.s.) as well as removal via precipitation and/or adsorption onto suspended complexes released from the BioFeO of Leptothrix sp. (19.6 mg P/g d.s.). Only a very small part of phosphorus (0.3 mg P/g d.s.) was retained in the Leptothrix sp. sheats during bacterial growth. Deposits of Gallionella sp. had an overall phosphate removal capacity of 39.6 mg P/g d.s. Significant amounts of phosphate were apparently incorporated into the Gallionella sp. stalks during their growth (31.0 mg P/g d.s.) and only one-fifth of the total phosphate removal can be related to adsorption (8.6 mg P/g d.s.). Their overall ability to immobilize large quantities of phosphate from solutions indicates that BioFeO could play an important role in environmental and engineered systems for removal of contaminants.

Phosphate recovery from sewage sludge is essential in a circular economy. Currently, the main focus in centralized municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs) lies on struvite recovery routes, land application of sludge or on technologies that rely on sludge incineration. These routes have several disadvantages. Our study shows that the mineral vivianite, Fe₂(PO₄)₃ × 8H₂O, is present in digested sludge and can be the major form of phosphate in the sludge. Thus, we suggest vivianite can be the nucleus for alternative phosphate recovery options. Excess and digested sewage sludge was sampled from full-scale MWTPs and analysed using x-ray diffraction (XRD), conventional scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), environmental SEM-EDX (eSEM-EDX) and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Vivianite was observed in all plants where iron was used for phosphate removal. In excess sludge before the anaerobic digestion, ferrous iron dominated the iron pool (≥50%) as shown by Mössbauer spectroscopy. XRD and Mössbauer spectroscopy showed no clear correlation between vivianite bound phosphate versus the iron content in excess sludge. In digested sludge, ferrous iron was the dominant iron form (>85%). Phosphate bound in vivianite increased with the iron content of the digested sludge but levelled off at high iron levels. 70–90% of all phosphate was bound in vivianite in the sludge with the highest iron content (molar Fe:P = 2.5). The quantification of vivianite was difficult and bears some uncertainty probably because of the presence of impure vivianite as indicated by SEM-EDX. eSEM-EDX indicates that the vivianite occurs as relatively small (20–100 μm) but free particles. We envisage very efficient phosphate recovery technologies that separate these particles based on their magnetic properties from the complex sludge matrix.