Additive manufacturing (AM), nowadays commonly known as 3D printing, is a revolutionary materials processing technology, particularly suitable for the production of low-volume parts with high shape complexities and often with multiple functions. As such, it holds great promise for the fabrication of patient-specific implants. In recent years, remarkable progress has been made in implementing AM in the bio-fabrication field. This paper presents an overview on the state-of-the-art AM technology for bone tissue engineering (BTE) scaffolds, with a particular focus on the AM scaffolds made of metallic biomaterials. It starts with a brief description of architecture design strategies to meet the biological and mechanical property requirements of scaffolds. Then, it summarizes the working principles, advantages and limitations of each of AM methods suitable for creating porous structures and manufacturing scaffolds from powdered materials. It elaborates on the finite-element (FE) analysis applied to predict the mechanical behavior of AM scaffolds, as well as the effect of the architectural design of porous structure on its mechanical properties. The review ends up with the authors’ view on the current challenges and further research directions.@en

The corrosion fatigue behavior of additively manufactured topologically ordered porous iron based on diamond unit cells was studied for the first time to understand its response to cyclic loading in a simulated physiological environment. The material exhibited high fatigue resistance with fatigue strengths being 70% and 65% of yield stress in air and revised simulated body fluid, respectively, mainly due to its slow degradation and excellent ductility. However, cyclic loading significantly increased biodegradation rate, especially at higher stress levels. The observed extraordinary fatigue strength, slow biodegradation and high ductility underline the importance of porous iron as a promising bone-substituting material.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) biodegradable metals with topologically ordered porous structures hold unprecedented promise as potential bone substitutes. The first reports on this type of biomaterials have just recently appeared in the literature. There is, however, no information available in the literature regarding their mechanical performance under cyclic loading or the interactions between biodegradation and cyclic loading. We therefore used selective laser melting (SLM) to fabricate porous magnesium alloy (WE43) scaffolds based on diamond unit cells. The microstructure of the resulting material was examined using electron back-scattered diffraction, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The fatigue behaviors of the material in air and in revised simulated body fluid (r-SBF) were evaluated and compared. Biodegradation decreased the fatigue strength of the porous material from 30% to 20% of its yield strength. Moreover, cyclic loading significantly increased its biodegradation rate. The mechanistic aspects of how biodegradation and cyclic loading interacted with each other on different scales were revealed as well. On the micro-scale, cracks initiated at biodegradation pits and propagated transgranularly. In addition, dislocations became more tangled after the fatigue tests. On the macro-scale, cracks preferred initiating at the strut junctions where tensile stress concentrations were present, as revealed by the finite element analysis of the porous material under compressive loading. Most of the cracks initiated in the struts were positioned on the periphery of the specimens. Furthermore, the biodegradation pattern was found to be location-dependent with more localized biodegradation occurring in the center of the specimens. Further improvements in the biodegradation-affected fatigue performance of the AM porous Mg alloy may therefore be realized by optimizing both the topological design of the porous structure and the laser-processing parameters that determine the microstructure of the SLM porous material.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) biodegradable metals with topologically ordered porous structures hold unprecedented promise as potential bone substitutes. The first reports on this type of biomaterials have just recently appeared in the literature. There is, however, no information available in the literature regarding their mechanical performance under cyclic loading or the interactions between biodegradation and cyclic loading. We therefore used selective laser melting (SLM) to fabricate porous magnesium alloy (WE43) scaffolds based on diamond unit cells. The microstructure of the resulting material was examined using electron back-scattered diffraction, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The fatigue behaviors of the material in air and in revised simulated body fluid (r-SBF) were evaluated and compared. Biodegradation decreased the fatigue strength of the porous material from 30% to 20% of its yield strength. Moreover, cyclic loading significantly increased its biodegradation rate. The mechanistic aspects of how biodegradation and cyclic loading interacted with each other on different scales were revealed as well. On the micro-scale, cracks initiated at biodegradation pits and propagated transgranularly. In addition, dislocations became more tangled after the fatigue tests. On the macro-scale, cracks preferred initiating at the strut junctions where tensile stress concentrations were present, as revealed by the finite element analysis of the porous material under compressive loading. Most of the cracks initiated in the struts were positioned on the periphery of the specimens. Furthermore, the biodegradation pattern was found to be location-dependent with more localized biodegradation occurring in the center of the specimens. Further improvements in the biodegradation-affected fatigue performance of the AM porous Mg alloy may therefore be realized by optimizing both the topological design of the porous structure and the laser-processing parameters that determine the microstructure of the SLM porous material.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) biodegradable metals with topologically ordered porous structures hold unprecedented promise as potential bone substitutes. The first reports on this type of biomaterials have just recently appeared in the literature. There is, however, no information available in the literature regarding their mechanical performance under cyclic loading or the interactions between biodegradation and cyclic loading. We therefore used selective laser melting (SLM) to fabricate porous magnesium alloy (WE43) scaffolds based on diamond unit cells. The microstructure of the resulting material was examined using electron back-scattered diffraction, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The fatigue behaviors of the material in air and in revised simulated body fluid (r-SBF) were evaluated and compared. Biodegradation decreased the fatigue strength of the porous material from 30% to 20% of its yield strength. Moreover, cyclic loading significantly increased its biodegradation rate. The mechanistic aspects of how biodegradation and cyclic loading interacted with each other on different scales were revealed as well. On the micro-scale, cracks initiated at biodegradation pits and propagated transgranularly. In addition, dislocations became more tangled after the fatigue tests. On the macro-scale, cracks preferred initiating at the strut junctions where tensile stress concentrations were present, as revealed by the finite element analysis of the porous material under compressive loading. Most of the cracks initiated in the struts were positioned on the periphery of the specimens. Furthermore, the biodegradation pattern was found to be location-dependent with more localized biodegradation occurring in the center of the specimens. Further improvements in the biodegradation-affected fatigue performance of the AM porous Mg alloy may therefore be realized by optimizing both the topological design of the porous structure and the laser-processing parameters that determine the microstructure of the SLM porous material.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) functionally graded porous metallic biomaterials offer unique opportunities to satisfy the contradictory design requirements of an ideal bone substitute. However, no functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first ever report on AM functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. We made use of a diamond unit cell for the topological design of four different types of porous structures including two functionally graded structures and two reference uniform structures. Specimens were then fabricated from pure iron powder using selective laser melting (SLM), followed by experimental and computational analyses of their permeability, dynamic biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility. It was found that the topological design with functional gradients controlled the fluid flow, mass transport properties and biodegradation behavior of the AM porous iron specimens, as up to 4-fold variations in permeability and up to 3-fold variations in biodegradation rate were observed for the different experimental groups. After 4 weeks of in vitro biodegradation, the AM porous scaffolds lost 5–16% of their weight. This falls into the desired range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution and confirms our hypothesis that topological design could indeed accelerate the biodegradation of otherwise slowly degrading metals, like iron. Even after 4 weeks of biodegradation, the mechanical properties of the specimens (i.e., E = 0.5–2.1 GPa, σy = 8–48 MPa) remained within the range of the values reported for trabecular bone. Design-dependent cell viability did not differ from gold standard controls for up to 48 h. This study clearly shows the great potential of AM functionally graded porous iron as a bone substituting material. Moreover, we demonstrate that complex topological design permits the control of mechanical properties, degradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. Statement of Significance: No functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first report on 3D-printed functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. Our results suggest that topological design in general, and functional gradients in particular can be used as an important tool for adjusting the biodegradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. The biodegradation rate and mass transport properties of AM porous iron can be increased while maintaining the bone-mimicking mechanical properties of these biomaterials. The observations reported here underline the importance of proper topological design in the development of AM porous biodegradable metals.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) functionally graded porous metallic biomaterials offer unique opportunities to satisfy the contradictory design requirements of an ideal bone substitute. However, no functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first ever report on AM functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. We made use of a diamond unit cell for the topological design of four different types of porous structures including two functionally graded structures and two reference uniform structures. Specimens were then fabricated from pure iron powder using selective laser melting (SLM), followed by experimental and computational analyses of their permeability, dynamic biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility. It was found that the topological design with functional gradients controlled the fluid flow, mass transport properties and biodegradation behavior of the AM porous iron specimens, as up to 4-fold variations in permeability and up to 3-fold variations in biodegradation rate were observed for the different experimental groups. After 4 weeks of in vitro biodegradation, the AM porous scaffolds lost 5–16% of their weight. This falls into the desired range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution and confirms our hypothesis that topological design could indeed accelerate the biodegradation of otherwise slowly degrading metals, like iron. Even after 4 weeks of biodegradation, the mechanical properties of the specimens (i.e., E = 0.5–2.1 GPa, σy = 8–48 MPa) remained within the range of the values reported for trabecular bone. Design-dependent cell viability did not differ from gold standard controls for up to 48 h. This study clearly shows the great potential of AM functionally graded porous iron as a bone substituting material. Moreover, we demonstrate that complex topological design permits the control of mechanical properties, degradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. Statement of Significance: No functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first report on 3D-printed functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. Our results suggest that topological design in general, and functional gradients in particular can be used as an important tool for adjusting the biodegradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. The biodegradation rate and mass transport properties of AM porous iron can be increased while maintaining the bone-mimicking mechanical properties of these biomaterials. The observations reported here underline the importance of proper topological design in the development of AM porous biodegradable metals.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) functionally graded porous metallic biomaterials offer unique opportunities to satisfy the contradictory design requirements of an ideal bone substitute. However, no functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first ever report on AM functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. We made use of a diamond unit cell for the topological design of four different types of porous structures including two functionally graded structures and two reference uniform structures. Specimens were then fabricated from pure iron powder using selective laser melting (SLM), followed by experimental and computational analyses of their permeability, dynamic biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility. It was found that the topological design with functional gradients controlled the fluid flow, mass transport properties and biodegradation behavior of the AM porous iron specimens, as up to 4-fold variations in permeability and up to 3-fold variations in biodegradation rate were observed for the different experimental groups. After 4 weeks of in vitro biodegradation, the AM porous scaffolds lost 5–16% of their weight. This falls into the desired range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution and confirms our hypothesis that topological design could indeed accelerate the biodegradation of otherwise slowly degrading metals, like iron. Even after 4 weeks of biodegradation, the mechanical properties of the specimens (i.e., E = 0.5–2.1 GPa, σy = 8–48 MPa) remained within the range of the values reported for trabecular bone. Design-dependent cell viability did not differ from gold standard controls for up to 48 h. This study clearly shows the great potential of AM functionally graded porous iron as a bone substituting material. Moreover, we demonstrate that complex topological design permits the control of mechanical properties, degradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. Statement of Significance: No functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first report on 3D-printed functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. Our results suggest that topological design in general, and functional gradients in particular can be used as an important tool for adjusting the biodegradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. The biodegradation rate and mass transport properties of AM porous iron can be increased while maintaining the bone-mimicking mechanical properties of these biomaterials. The observations reported here underline the importance of proper topological design in the development of AM porous biodegradable metals.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) functionally graded porous metallic biomaterials offer unique opportunities to satisfy the contradictory design requirements of an ideal bone substitute. However, no functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first ever report on AM functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. We made use of a diamond unit cell for the topological design of four different types of porous structures including two functionally graded structures and two reference uniform structures. Specimens were then fabricated from pure iron powder using selective laser melting (SLM), followed by experimental and computational analyses of their permeability, dynamic biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility. It was found that the topological design with functional gradients controlled the fluid flow, mass transport properties and biodegradation behavior of the AM porous iron specimens, as up to 4-fold variations in permeability and up to 3-fold variations in biodegradation rate were observed for the different experimental groups. After 4 weeks of in vitro biodegradation, the AM porous scaffolds lost 5–16% of their weight. This falls into the desired range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution and confirms our hypothesis that topological design could indeed accelerate the biodegradation of otherwise slowly degrading metals, like iron. Even after 4 weeks of biodegradation, the mechanical properties of the specimens (i.e., E = 0.5–2.1 GPa, σy = 8–48 MPa) remained within the range of the values reported for trabecular bone. Design-dependent cell viability did not differ from gold standard controls for up to 48 h. This study clearly shows the great potential of AM functionally graded porous iron as a bone substituting material. Moreover, we demonstrate that complex topological design permits the control of mechanical properties, degradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. Statement of Significance: No functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first report on 3D-printed functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. Our results suggest that topological design in general, and functional gradients in particular can be used as an important tool for adjusting the biodegradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. The biodegradation rate and mass transport properties of AM porous iron can be increased while maintaining the bone-mimicking mechanical properties of these biomaterials. The observations reported here underline the importance of proper topological design in the development of AM porous biodegradable metals.@en

Additively manufactured (AM) functionally graded porous metallic biomaterials offer unique opportunities to satisfy the contradictory design requirements of an ideal bone substitute. However, no functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first ever report on AM functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. We made use of a diamond unit cell for the topological design of four different types of porous structures including two functionally graded structures and two reference uniform structures. Specimens were then fabricated from pure iron powder using selective laser melting (SLM), followed by experimental and computational analyses of their permeability, dynamic biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, and cytocompatibility. It was found that the topological design with functional gradients controlled the fluid flow, mass transport properties and biodegradation behavior of the AM porous iron specimens, as up to 4-fold variations in permeability and up to 3-fold variations in biodegradation rate were observed for the different experimental groups. After 4 weeks of in vitro biodegradation, the AM porous scaffolds lost 5–16% of their weight. This falls into the desired range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution and confirms our hypothesis that topological design could indeed accelerate the biodegradation of otherwise slowly degrading metals, like iron. Even after 4 weeks of biodegradation, the mechanical properties of the specimens (i.e., E = 0.5–2.1 GPa, σy = 8–48 MPa) remained within the range of the values reported for trabecular bone. Design-dependent cell viability did not differ from gold standard controls for up to 48 h. This study clearly shows the great potential of AM functionally graded porous iron as a bone substituting material. Moreover, we demonstrate that complex topological design permits the control of mechanical properties, degradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. Statement of Significance: No functionally graded porous structures have ever been 3D-printed from biodegradable metals, even though biodegradability is crucial both for full tissue regeneration and for the prevention of implant-associated infections in the long term. Here, we present the first report on 3D-printed functionally graded biodegradable porous metallic biomaterials. Our results suggest that topological design in general, and functional gradients in particular can be used as an important tool for adjusting the biodegradation behavior of AM porous metallic biomaterials. The biodegradation rate and mass transport properties of AM porous iron can be increased while maintaining the bone-mimicking mechanical properties of these biomaterials. The observations reported here underline the importance of proper topological design in the development of AM porous biodegradable metals.@en