The lifespan of internal reforming solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) is not yet sufficient. Among other design challenges, this is due to detrimental carbon deposition formations. This must be mitigated, without compromising the power output and efficiency of the fuel cell for it to become a commercial viable product. The carbon that is deposited originates from a methane/hydrogen mixture, fed to the fuel cell. All failure modes caused either directly or indirectly by carbon formations are explored. A 3D-model representing part of an SOFC is modelled, in order to identify areas specially susceptible to carbon depositing on the anode. The methane is reformed by a surface chemistry mechanism developed with density functional theory. By doing this, it is possible to model both reaction kinetics and reaction equilibrium of the reforming process.
The final model can accurately model local mixture composition, as well as surface site coverage. The reaction rate and activation energy of methane reforming on a nickel catalyst is also calculated by using the output of the simulations. The site coverage observed can lead to further carbon deposition, but this is not yet modelled.

As a result of the Paris Agreement, energy technologies require to shift from fossil fuel based to carbon neutral. In 2015, the maritime sector was responsible for 2.6 % of the global CO2 emissions. The combination of the solid oxide fuel cell fueled by sustainable synthesized ammonia is seen as a potential solution to
reduce emissions. Ammonia is considered as a balanced solution in terms of ease of storage, volumetric energy density and cost of production. The solid oxide fuel cell is generally regarded to be a promising technology owing to its high eciency and combined heat and power usage. This MSc thesis investigates the technical viability of a sustainable SOFC propulsion system fueled by ammonia. Technical viability is expressed in equipment weight and volume, whereas sustainability is determined by efficiency and emissions. The solid oxide propulsion system is subjected to a case study: A diesel engine powered vessel from the Watertaxi Rotterdam company with an assumed shaft power of 25 kW. A model was compiled to determine the efficiency, weight and volume of the solid oxide fuel cell system. The model covers activation losses, ohmic losses and diffusion losses within the solid oxide fuel cell stack. With the model, a sensitivity study with a selected set of system parameters was performed to gain insight in the solid oxide fuel cell system. The selected system parameters are: Number of cells in the stack, single-pass fuel utilization, cathode off-gas recirculation rate and anode off-gas recirculation rate. The final solid oxide fuel cell system has a signicantly higher efficiency based on the higher heating value than the diesel engine system: 46.0 % versus 35.0 % respectively. Also, no carbon dioxide is emitted, leading to a reduction of 56.9 ton per year. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide emissions are considered to be negligible compared to the diesel engine system. However, the weight and volume of the solid oxide fuel cell system are signicantly larger: 1199 kg versus 278 kg and 1175 L versus 432 L respectively. Mainly caused by the battery module, required for compensating for temporarily imbalances between power demand and power supply. As a result, it is concluded that the solid oxide fuel cell system is unpractical for the small inland vessel selected for the case study. Larger sized vessels have more potential for the application, because large sized vessel sail more continuously, reducing the battery capacity requirement, may allow for more tolerance regarding heavy and bulky equipment and have more benefit of the higher efficiency due to a lower refuel frequency.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has imposed strict emission guidelines for the shipping industry to meet the Paris agreement. This has led the maritime industry to search for alternative fuels and prime movers. An electric propulsion system powered with a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)-Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is one of the possible solutions. In such a system the SOFC is made to run at a constant load while the engine is expected to cover the transient loads.
The main purpose of the thesis is to get an insight into the optimum power split required between Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) and Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) for a particular maritime load profile. This has been achieved by analyzing system performance of three different power split configurations (30-70, 50-50,70-30) between SOFC and ICE. The operational profiles from three different case studies have been considered; Cruise, Oil tanker and Yacht. The system analysis has been performed with steady state results for SOFC-ICE system modeled in Matlab Simulink. SOFC has been modeled as 1D model with 3 elements whereas, the engine has been modeled as a lookup table with datasheets for two stroke dual fuel CI engine. From the power split study it has been found that, in general, the ship with high frequency of full load operation benefits from a large installed SOFC and the ships with high frequency of anchoring load or part load benefits from small installed SOFC power. Owing to large heat demand, the Cruise ship benefits the most from the SOFC-ICE system. A 50-50 power split or SOFC installed at base load for a Cruise ship leads to carbon emission reduction by almost 56% compared to diesel electric system while achieving a system efficiency (heat and power) of 74%. Thus, the SOFC-ICE system running on natural gas can help in reducing the emissions by almost 50% while allowing high electrical and system efficiencies. Thus, allowing the maritime industry to attain the greenhouse gas emission and energy efficiency goals. With commercialization of green hydrogen and storage, the system could also help in achieving the zero emission goals.

Emissions restrictions imposed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) is forcing ship owners and builders to look into alternative fuels and prime movers. The high efficiency of fuel cells could help to decrease emissions in marine power generation. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are the most fuel flexible among fuel cells, the high operating temperature and the possibilities for direct internal reforming (DIR)makes this technology of great interest for natural gas fueled systems. SOFCs operating in hybrid system configuration could even achieve higher efficiencies, due to effective utilization of left-over fuel in anode off-gas and adequate system heat integration. In literature extensive research is found about hybridization of SOFCs and gas turbines. For such hybrid configurations high efficiencies are projected, however poor part load performance and high system complexity are tempering the interest for marine applications. SOFC integration with an internal combustion engine (ICE) also has high projected efficiencies and is expected to enable system integration in marine applications with limited complexity, higher robustness, and lower costs compared to SOFC-gas turbine integration. However, due to the novelty of SOFC-ICE hybrid systems, not much research has been published as of yet and the research that is found shows a variety in system configurations and performance results. This observation justifies additional SOFC-ICE hybrid system research, particularly if the system has to operate on marine applications. In this work an integration of an SOFC and ICE is proposed. Both SOFC and ICE share the load on the system: the SOFC can operate on a base load, while the ICE can handle majority of the transient load. A pre-reformer is proposed, which supplies partially reformed methane to the SOFC. The ICE is supplied with natural gas mixed with excess fuel from the SOFC-anode. This additional natural gas supply to the engine makes it a combined cycle, instead of a bottoming cycle, and allows better dynamic load control and increases reliability. Also system heat integration is an essential requirement, as the steam required for methane pre-reforming is produced with heat from engine exhaust system. System component models are developed and individually analysed. Thereafter both component models are combined to an SOFC-ICE hybrid system model and a study is conducted to investigate the sensitivity of the following operating parameters and system configurations on system performance and efficiency: SOFC current density, SOFC fuel utilization, anode off-gas recycling, methane pre-reforming ratio, pre-reformer integration, and power split ratio. The SOFC component model provides insights of performance behaviour when varying operating parameters. The ICE model clearly indicates the advantages when hydrogen is added to natural gas, both improved engine efficiency and improved combustion stability are demonstrated. Finally, it is found that operating the hybrid system model consisting of a 375 kWe (AC) SOFC and a 375 kWe ICE leads to an electric efficiency of 45.7 % (LHV). This is a 5 to 10 percent point improvement compared to conventional diesel engines operating in this power range [1]. In this hybrid system the SOFC current density is set to 5000 Am¡2, anode off-gas recycling is not applied, and 30 % of the SOFC fuel is pre-reformed. The SOFC fuel utilization is set to 86 % in order to avoid too large hydrogen-natural gas blending ratios at the ICE intake, which are currently not substantiated with engine experiments. Future modeling of the ICE should make it possible to extend the hydrogen-natural gas blending ratio, such that even higher hybrid system efficiencies can be demonstrated. This work demonstrates that the SOFC-ICE hybrid system operating at a 50 % SOFC and 50 % ICE power split provides a firmefficiency improvement compared to conventional diesel driven power plants in the range upto 1MW. An higher efficiency means a lower fuel consumption and thus a CO2-emissions reduction. Also NOx-formation is reduced, due to the absence of expansive high temperature combustion in the fuel cell part of the system. Considering volumetric power density, the SOFC-ICE hybrid system installation volume is more than twice as large as conventional marine power plants. Taking the energy conversion efficiency into account, the LNG storage space for proposed hybrid system is two times larger than that of a diesel fueled generator set. A 50 % SOFC and 50 % ICE power split leads to these numbers, depending on the operating profile a different power split can lead to other efficiencies and volume and weight constraints. The impact of power density and energy density depend on the practical application (e.g. ship design, required power, endurance, operating profile, and costs) and must be considered case-by-case.