Hydrogen carriers are attractive alternative fuels for the shipping sector. They are zero-emission, have high energy densities, and are safe, available, and easy to handle. Sodium borohydride, potassium borohydride, dibenzyltoluene, n-ethylcarbazole, and ammoniaborane are hydrogen carriers with high theoretical energy densities. The energy density is paramount to implementing hydrogen carriers as a high energy density enables compact and lightweight storage. The effective energy density depends on integrating heat and masses with energy converters. This combination defines the energy efficiency and, thus, the energy density of the system. This paper addresses the effective energy density of the hydrogen carriers, including the dehydrogenation process. Using a 0D model, we combined the five carriers with two types of fuel cells, namely proton exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), an internal combustion engine and a gas turbine. N-ethylcarbazole and dibenzyltoluene offer medium energy densities, reaching almost 4 MJ/kg. However, the effective energy density of sodium borohydride and ammoniaborane is very high, up to 15 MJ/kg, including the energy converter. This is similar to the energy density of marine diesel oil combined with an internal combustion engine. Thus, we conclude hydrogen carriers are alternative fuels that deserve more attention because of their strong potential to make shipping zero-emission.

– Hydrogen carriers, such as liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) and borohydrides, are promising zero-emission alternative fuels for ships. Bringing these hydrogen carriers on board, however, creates new challenges. A major challenge is their spill behaviour. Knowing the spill behaviour is paramount to avoid large-scale environmental disasters. This paper investigates the spill behaviour of four hydrogen carriers (and their conjugates): sodium borohydride, ammonia borane, dibenzyltoluene, and n-ethylcarbazole. The hydrogen carriers were all dissolved in artificial seawater to test their behaviour. Sodium borohydride reacts with seawater, as it also reacts with pure water. However, contrary to expectations, it reacts faster with seawater than regular water. The reaction mechanism behind this is unknown. Ammonia borane does not visibly react with normal water or with seawater. Dibenzyltoluene sinks and forms tiny bubbles which are easily perturbed. Unfortunately, perhydro dibenzyltoluene could not be tested due to technical problems. N-ethylcarbazole breaks up into smaller pieces and predominantly stays afloat, likely due to the surface tension of water. Perhydro n-ethylcarbazole floats but is barely visible in seawater due to its transparency. Preventive measures must be established to avoid large-scale spills if these substances are utilised on ships, as they are likely challenging to clean up.

Solid oxide fuel cell systems are considered for the power plant of ships, because of their high efficiency, low pollutant emissions, and fuel flexibility. This research compares the volume, mass, fuel consumption, and emissions of different hybrid power plants for cruise ships using solid oxide fuel cells, fuelled with marine gas oil and liquefied natural gas. A component sizing model allocates the installed power over the selected power plant components and determines their size and weight. The components and energy management strategy are simulated with a cruise ship for five years of operation. A simple method is implemented to estimate the degradation and its effect on component operation. The combined component sizing and time-domain model highlights the importance of dynamic simulation for battery sizing. The results show that using solid oxide fuel cells for the auxiliary consumers can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 21% and pollutants by 38% to 46% with only 17.5% installed power, which has limited consequences for the cost and size of the power plant. With 31% installed power, the ship can operate in low-emission zones while reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 33% and pollutants by 60% to 70%. Performing all cruise operations requires 51% installed fuel cell power and reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 49% and pollutants by 94% to 96%. In conclusion, the study affirms that solid oxide fuel cell systems, with proper sizing and energy management, can be used to reduce shipping emissions and reach IMO's 30% GHG emission reduction target for 2030.

Hydrogen carriers are attractive alternative fuels for the shipping sectors. They are zero-emission, have high energy densities, and are safe, available, and easy to handle. Sodium borohydride, potassium borohydride, dibenzyltoluene, n-ethylcarbazole, and ammoniaborane are interesting hydrogen carriers, with high theoretical energy densities. The exact energy density of these hydrogen carriers depends on the integration of heat and mass with the energy converters. This combination defines the energy efficiency and, thus, the energy density of the system. Using a 0D model, we combined the five carriers with two types of fuel cells (PEM and SOFC), an internal combustion engine and a gas turbine. This resulted in 20 combinations. Despite the limitations of the 0D model and the occasional difficulty of validating input values, this model still produces exciting findings, which are valuable for further research. For the dehydrogenation of both dibenzyltoluene and n-ethylcarbazole, an external hydrogen burner is required if no waste heat resources from the integrated system are available. For the borohydrides, on the other hand, energy integration is essential for reducing cooling power. Dehydrogenation produces substantial energy, but only a fraction of this energy can be used for internal preheating. Dehydrogenation of ammoniaborane produces less energy. Among all hydrogen carriers, both ammoniaborane and sodium borohydride provide energy densities comparable to that of marine diesel oil. In particular, ammoniaborane possesses a remarkably high energy density. Thus, we conclude, that hydrogen carriers are attractive alternative fuels that deserve more attention, including their potential performance for hydrogen imports.

New alternative maritime fuels are required to reduce or eliminate the use of fossil fuels in shipping. This need extends across all shipping industry sectors, including the Navy. However, Navy vessels comply with unique requirements compared to vessels within the general shipping industry. Increased safety is one of these and alternative fuels like ammonia may not meet these safety standards. Other alternative fuels, such as methanol, require additional mitigating measures like cofferdams. However, solid hydrogen carriers, such as ammonia borane and sodium borohydride, will most likely not require further safety measures and could even increase safety. These solid hydrogen carriers have a powder-like nature, high flashpoint, and high energy density, of about half that of MDO. They could be suitable not only as an alternative fuel but also as a damper to reduce impact consequences. This research aims to explore whether these two alternative fuels can mitigate the impact and what the consequences of this impact will be on the survivability of a ship. Both impact with and without heat will be taken into account. Ship collisions happen to civilian ships and naval ships alike, so heatless impact remains a vital topic of study. Additionally, the current geopolitical state of affairs may also require civilian ships to sail through more hostile waters than before, possibly even experiencing impacts where heat is generated. The research will follow a conceptual approach based on chemistry and chemical reactions. This approach allows for the evaluation of alternative fuels for various ship types.

Shipping is a relatively clean transport method with low emissions per ton-mile compared with road transport. However, harmful emissions emitted in coastal areas are a concern, as these affect local air quality and health. To reduce sulphur oxide (SOX ) emissions, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) implemented a global sulphur cap of 0.5 wt% and the 0.1 wt% limit in emission control areas (ECAs). Ship owners can opt for either low sulphur fuels or wet scrubber systems. Wet scrubber systems are a reliable method for reducing SOX emissions with capture rates of up to 98%. These systems may use seawater alkalinity or caustic soda (e.g. closed-loop systems) to neutralise the SOX emissions. However, the dynamic loading of engines can cause large fluctuations in the exhaust flow conditions, and it is unknown how these affect the effectiveness of the scrubber. This study explores the impact of dynamic loads on the SOX removal efficiency of closed-loop wet scrubbers. A dynamic model of a closed-loop wet scrubber utilising fresh water and caustic soda is developed and verified using publicly available data. The model applies the two-film theory to model the gas-liquid interface. Billet and Schultes liquid hold-up theory is used to model the liquid film thickness in the packed bed. Maintaining scrubber efficiency with large load fluctuations or high-frequency fluctuations requires an increased liquid flow. The scrubber control system used a set-point of 75% of the equivalent compliance limit to ensure compliance with the 0.1% ECA limit during load fluctuations. The model and results can be used to develop a more advanced control system for improved scrubber operation and integration with a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system to demonstrate compliance with the IMO NOX Tier III limit when using high-sulphur heavy fuel oil (HFO).

Reducing the use of fossil fuels in shipping requires new, alternative maritime fuels. Hydrogen carriers offer a safe and energy-dense solution for storing hydrogen, a zero-emission alternative fuel. This research focuses on ammonia borane, NaBH4, n-ethylcarbazole and dibenzyltoluene. Applying hydrogen carriers influences ship design significantly, as they require additional specialised equipment to remove hydrogen from the hydrogen carrier. This research estimates the size of the equipment. As this equipment will need to be stored and maintained on the ship, the exact sizing and sequence of the additional equipment will likely influence ship design. Results show that the reactor size is significant for all hydrogen carriers. The mixing tank is considerably sized for NaBH4 and ammonia borane, while the heat exchangers are large for dibenzyltoluene and n-ethylcarbazole.

Green hydrogen combined with PEM fuel cell systems is a viable option to meet the demand for alternative maritime fuels. However, hydrogen storage faces challenges, including low volumetric density, fire and explosion risks and transport challenges. We assessed over fifteen hydrogen carriers based on their maritime performance characteristics to determine their suitability for shipboard use. Evaluation criteria included energy density, locally zero-emission, circularity of process, safety, dehydrogenation process, logistic availability and handling. Thus, excluding ammonia and methanol because of these constraints, we found that borohydrides, liquid organic hydrogen carriers and ammoniaborane are the most promising hydrogen carriers to use on ships with PEM fuel cells. Borohydrides, specifically sodium borohydride, have high energy densities but face regeneration issues. The liquid organic hydrogen carrier dibenzyltoluene has a lower energy density but exhibits easy hydrogenation and good handling. Given varying operational demands, we developed a framework to assess the suitability of hydrogen carriers for use in different ship categories. Evaluating the three types of hydrogen carriers, using our framework and considering current practices, shows that these are viable options for almost all ship types. Thus, we have identified three types of hydrogen carriers, which should be the focus of future research.

The marine industry must reduce emissions to comply with recent and future regulations. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are seen as a promising option for efficient power generation on ships with reduced emissions. However, it is unclear how the devices can be integrated and how this affects the operation of the ship economically and environmentally. This paper reviews studies that consider SOFC for marine applications. First, this article discusses noteworthy developments in SOFC systems, including power plant options and fuel possibilities. Next, it presents the design drivers for a marine power plant and explores how an SOFC system performs. Hereafter, the possibilities for integrating the SOFC system with the ship are examined, also considering economic and environmental impact. The review shows unexplored potential to successfully integrate SOFC with thermal and electrical systems in marine vessels. Additionally, it is identified that there are still possibilities to improve marine SOFC systems, for which a holistic approach is needed for design at cell, stack, module, and system level. Nevertheless, it is expected that hybridisation is needed for a technically and economically feasible ship. Despite its high cost, SOFC systems could significantly reduce GHG, NOX, SOX, PM, and noise emissions in shipping.

The availability of supporting bunker infrastructure for zero-emission energy sources will be key to accommodate zero-emission inland waterway transport (IWT). However, it remains unclear which (mix of) zero-emission energy sources to prepare for, and how to plan the bunker infrastructure in relative positions and required capacity at corridor scale. To provide insight into the positioning and dimensions of bunkering infrastructure we propose a bottom-up energy consumption method combined with agent based network simulation. In the method, we first produce a two-way traffic energy consumption map, aggregated from the energy footprint of individual vessels on the transport network. Next we investigate the potential sailing range of the vessels on the network if they would sail the same routes, but with alternative energy carriers. Based on the sailing range of the vessels for different energy carriers, the maximum inter-distance between refuelling points can be estimated. By aggregating the energy consumptions of all the vessels on the network, we can estimate the required capacity of a given refuelling point. To demonstrate the basic functionality we implement the method to four representative corridor scale inland shipping examples using zero-emission energy sources including hydrogen, batteries, e-NH3, e-methanol and e-LNG. The application in this paper is limited to four abstract cases. A recommended next step is to apply this approach to a more realistic network.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) systems have the potential to reduce emissions from seagoing vessels. However, it is unknown whether ship motions influence the system's operation. In this research, a 1.5 kW SOFC module is operated on an inclination platform that emulates ship motions, to evaluate the influence of static and dynamic inclinations on the system's safety, operation, and lifetime. The test campaign consists of a static inclination test, a dynamic test, a degradation test, and a high acceleration test. There were no interruptions in the power supply during the different tests, and no detectable gas leakages or safety hazards. Although the SOFC does not fail in any test condition, dynamic inclinations result in forced oscillations in the fuel regulation, which propagate through the system by different feedback loops in the control architecture, leading to significant deviations in the operational parameters of the system. Additionally, for motion periods from 16 to 26 s, reoccurring exceedance of the fuel utilisation results in a gradual reduction of the power supply. Several enhancements are recommended to improve the design of SOFCs and marine fuel cell regulations to ensure their safe operation on ships.

An increasing demand in the marine industry to reduce emissions led to investigations into more efficient power conversion using fuels with sustainable production pathways. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) are under consideration for long-range shipping, because of its high efficiency, low pollutant emissions, and fuel flexibility. SOFC systems also have great potential to cater for the heat demand in ships, but the heat integration is not often considered when assessing its feasibility. This study evaluates the electrical and heat efficiency of a 100 kW SOFC system for marine applications fuelled with methane, methanol, diesel, ammonia, or hydrogen. In addition, cathode off-gas recirculation (COGR) is investigated to tackle low oxygen utilisation and thus improve heat regeneration. The software Cycle Tempo is used to simulate the power plant, which uses a 1D model for the SOFCs. At nominal conditions, the highest net electrical efficiency (LHV) was found for methane (58.1%), followed by diesel (57.6%), and ammonia (55.1%). The highest heat efficiency was found for ammonia (27.4%), followed by hydrogen (25.6%). COGR resulted in similar electrical efficiencies, but increased the heat efficiency by 11.9% to 105.0% for the different fuels. The model was verified with a sensitivity analysis and validated by comparison with similar studies. It is concluded that COGR is a promising method to increase the heat efficiency of marine SOFC systems.

It is essential to use alternative fuels if we are to reach the emission reduction targets set by the IMO. Hydrogen carriers are classified as zero-emission, while having a higher energy density (including packing factor) than pure hydrogen. They are often considered as safe alternative fuels. The exact definition of what safety entails is often lacking, both for hydrogen carriers as well as for ship safety. The aim of this study is to review the safety of hydrogen carriers from two perspectives, investigating potential connections between the chemical and maritime approaches to safety. This enables a reasoned consideration between safety aspects and other design drivers in ship design and operation. The hydrogen carriers AB, NaBH4, KBH4 and two LOHCs (NEC and DBT) are taken into consideration, together with a couple reference fuels (ammonia, methanol and MDO). After the evaluation of chemical properties related to safety and the scope of the current IMO safety framework, it can be concluded that safety remains a vague and non-explicit concept from both perspectives. Therefore, further research is required to prove the safe application of hydrogen carriers onboard ships.

Marine actors are showing an increased interest in the application of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) for deep sea shipping, because of their high conversion efficiency, low pollutant emissions, and fuel flexibility. However, it is unknown how the operation of SOFC systems is affected by large inclinations and motions, which can be present in ships for instance by seawaves. The goal of this research is to evaluate the influence of static and dynamic inclinations on the operation and safety of SOFC systems. Ship motions are emulated using a one-axial oscillation platform up to 30 degrees of inclination. The SOFC system was successfully operated on the platform and demonstrated stable power production under a variety of test conditions without any noticeable safety hazards. The results of the experiments are used to propose design improvements for marine SOFC systems, ultimately contributing to reduce the emissions of the shipping industry.

We propose and analyse an optimization method that uses a machine learning approach to solve multi-objective, constrained propeller optimization problems. The method uses an online learning strategy where explainable supervised classifiers learn the location of the Pareto front and advise search strategies. The classifiers are trained with orthogonal features that capture geometric variation in radial distribution of pitch, skew, camber and chordlength. Based on orthogonal features, the classifiers predict whether or not a design lies on the Pareto front. If the design is predicted to lie on the Pareto front, the method verifies this with an evaluation. If the design is predicted to not lie on the Pareto front with a high confidence level, then the design is ignored. This skipped evaluation reduces the computational effort of optimization. The method is demonstrated on a cavitating, unsteady flow case of the Wageningen B-4 70 propeller with P/D = 1.0 operating in the Seiun-Maru wake. Compared to the classical Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm — III (NSGA-III) the optimization method is able to reduce 30% of evaluations per generation while reproducing a comparable Pareto front. Trade-offs between suction side, pressure side, tip-vortex cavitation and efficiency are identified from the Pareto front. The non-elitist NSGA-III search algorithm in conjunction with the explainable supervised classifiers also find very diverse solutions. Among the solutions, a design with no pressure side cavitation, low suction side cavitation and reasonable tip-vortex cavitation is found.

Ship designers hardly ever receive feedback from the actual operation of their designs apart from sea acceptance trials. Similarly, crews operating the vessels do not receive a clear picture of the energy performance and environmental footprint of different options. This paper proposes a methodology based on operational data from continuous monitoring, and applies it to an ocean patrol vessel of the Royal Netherlands Navy in order to identify the impact of diverse operational conditions on energy performance over the whole operating range, but also to examine the decision to equip the vessel with hybrid propulsion. Specifically, it introduces mean energy effectiveness indicator and mean total energy efficiency over discretised vessel speed, as the main tool in quantifying the energy gains and losses to assist in making better-advised design and operational decisions. Moreover, it demonstrates a dataset enrichment procedure, using manufacturers' information, in case not all needed sensors are available. Results suggest that electrical propulsion was 15–25% less efficient than the best mechanical propulsion mode, and on the overall energy performance of the vessel, increasing speed by 1 knot caused a 7% and 14% increase over the minimum (Formula presented.) /mile emissions between 8 and 14, and above 14 knots respectively.

Current EEDI (Energy Efficiency Design Index) regulations striving to reduce the installed engine power on new ships for a low EEDI may lead to underpowered ships having insufficient power when operating in adverse sea conditions. In this paper, the operational safety of a low-powered ocean-going cargo ship operating in adverse sea conditions has been investigated using an integrated ship propulsion, manoeuvring and sea state model. The ship propulsion and manoeuvring performance, especially the dynamic engine behaviour, when the ship is sailing in heavy weather and turning into head sea, have been studied. According to the results, the dynamic engine behaviour should be considered when assessing the ship operational safety, as the static engine operating envelope is inadequate for the safety assessment. The impact of PTO/PTI (power-take-off/in) operation and changing propeller pitch on the ship thrust availability in adverse sea conditions have also been investigated. To protect the engine from mechanical and thermal overloading, compressor surge and over-speeding during dynamic ship operations and/or in high sea states, the engine and propeller should be carefully controlled. The paper shows that if in (heavy) adverse weather the propeller pitch can be reduced or if the shaft generator can work as a motor (PTI), more thrust can be developed which can significantly improve the operational safety of the ship.

In this paper a Concept Exploration Tool (CET) for naval ship power plants is presented. The ideas behind the CET are introduced as well as the inner workings of the tool. Objective functions for different relevant design criteria (energy efficiency, emissions, signatures, etc.) are shortly discussed, after which the results for a Frigate case study will be shown. Interesting solutions that are outside the well-known zone of conventional configurations, that may lead to new insights and innovative designs, are amongst the results of the CET; demonstrating the advantages of Design Space Exploration. The main development of this CET compared to earlier versions is however in the computational effectiveness of the tool, which is amongst others made possible by so-called Intermediate Design Algorithms (IDeAs). The major improvement in computational time provides additional room for further development of the objective functions used.

This paper introduces a machine learning approach for optimizing propellers. The method aims to improve the computational cost of optimization by reducing the number of evaluations required to find solutions. This is achieved by directing the search towards design clusters with good performance, i.e. high propulsive efficiency and low cavitation. Three types of clusters are expected. The first cluster constitutes designs with performance of interest, i.e. high efficiency and low cavitation. The second cluster constitutes designs with performance not of interest, i.e. low efficiency and high cavitation. The third cluster constitutes designs whose performance cannot be estimated with the Boundary Element Methods (BEM) that we use in this study. In simple cases with single objective optimization to maximize efficiency, these clusters can be identified a-priori with unsupervised classifiers provided that orthogonally independent parameters are used as demonstrated in this paper. For multi-objective constrained optimization, to maximize efficiency and minimize cavitation, for example, supervised classifiers may be required to learn the clusters. Classical design variables such as chordlength, pitch, skew, rake, thickness distribution and camber of hydrofoils cannot be used to identify these clusters because of multicollinearity. Thus, a new orthogonal parametric model is proposed where the parameters are directly derived from the propeller blade mesh. As the blade surface mesh is used as boundary conditions to solve the governing equations, the orthogonal parameters are expected to have a stronger correlation with performance predictions of BEM or Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) than classical design variables. We demonstrate that design clusters with good performance can be identified with few BEM evaluations. Furthermore, the method synergizes explainable supervised and unsupervised learning to advice search algorithms and quickly guide them to lucrative regions in the design space. However, reducing the cost of optimization results in a trade-off with completeness of the search; this is also investigated in this paper. The method is demonstrated on a simple fully wetted flow case of the benchmark Wageningen B-4 70 propeller with P/D=1.0, as the geometry and open-water curves are readily accessible allowing back of the envelope verification and validation of our results.

Increasing pressure on the reduction or elimination of the use of fossil fuels in shipping requires the application of new maritime fuel alternatives. Green and circular produced hydrogen as a maritime fuel in fuel cell systems offers a great solution for these concerns. A fuel cell system has a zero emission performance, solid state silent process cycle, graceful degradation and no single point of failure. From a naval perspective, these characteristics very much support operational requirements like a silent propulsion and very low thermal and acoustic signatures as well as the possibility of an air independent system. Storage of hydrogen, however, is an issue. Traditional hydrogen storage in gas or liquefied aggregation has low volumetric density, low flame point, fire and explosion risks and transport challenges. The aim of this literature review is to investigate several hydrogen carriers and evaluate their characteristics on maritime and naval performance. This includes their volumetric and gravimetric density, dehydrogenation process, safety, logistic availability and handling. Over 15 different (types of) hydrogen carriers have been researched. Borohydrides, specifically sodium borohydride appeared to have several advantages, but still has issues with its hydrogenation process and handling due to it being a solid. The liquid organic hydrogen carrier dibenzyl toluene, on the other hand, does not meet the required energy density, but does have favourable additional properties, such as easy hydrogenation and good handling. Both of these are also subject of current research and development: For example, Hydrogenious LOHC Maritime AS, in combination with �stensj? Rederi, is working on a megawatt application for maritime, which should be finished in 2025. The Dutch government funds the SH2IPDRIVE project and the European Interreg North West Europe organization funds the H2SHIPS research project to analyse the shipboard use of these hydrogen carriers and to establish the design and engineering optimization opportunities.