Emerging clean fuels with high octane rating make spark ignition (SI) technology a promising candidate for heavy-duty applications. The conversion of existing diesel engines to SI operation can accelerate the adoption of these fuels. This study investigates the combustion characteristics of a 500 kWe marine lean-burn (LB) homogeneous charge SI engine with a flat cylinder head and a hemispherical bowl-in piston. It focuses on the relationship between fuel distribution and phasing across the distinct bowl-in and squish combustion phases and their impact on efficiency and emissions in multicylinder engines. The effects of air excess ratio, spark timing, and intake air temperature are systematically assessed. Dedicated measurements of methane and total unburned hydrocarbon emissions enable a comprehensive evaluation of combustion performance and emissions. Results confirm the presence of a slower squish phase, differing from conventional SI engines, and highlight the influence of the squish region's surface-to-volume ratio on flame propagation. The sensitivity of combustion behavior to control parameters such as air excess ratio and ignition timing is demonstrated, with notable differences: while richer mixtures advance bowl-in and squish phases, earlier ignition timing delays the squish phase. Despite this, both mixture enrichment and ignition timing advancement improved performance, increasing brake thermal efficiency by 25% and 10%, respectively. Methane emissions remained within typical ranges for marine SI engines and NO_x emissions met Tier III limits at nominal conditions; yet the persistent challenge of methane slip underscores the need for more comprehensive regulatory standards addressing both CH₄ and NO_x emissions.

The maritime sector aims to achieve short and medium-term sustainability targets through the conversion of Internal Combustion Engines to methanol operation. For small to medium sized engines, Port Fuel Injection (PFI) is the most viable injection method to achieve this conversion. However, the knowledge of the behaviour of methanol in combustion engines, particularly its spray characteristics under PFI conditions, is limited. To better understand liquid methanol sprays, this paper studies the injection of methanol in marine PFI conditions through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling. The CFD models use the Lagrangian-Eulerian (LE) coupling method within the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) turbulence framework. Numerical results were validated using dedicated methanol experiments from the literature for both high and low injection pressures. Subsequently, this predictive CFD framework was used in a number of different injection pressures with scaled injection quantities that represent marine applications. Moreover, we demonstrated that high injection pressure improves atomisation and, thus, evaporation prior to wall impingement. This work strongly contributes to our understanding of marine PFI methanol engines by modelling fuel quantities relevant for ship applications. Our approach can be implemented in full engine simulations to solve evaporation challenges often found in small-bore methanol marine engines.

Renewably produced methanol is a promising fuel for internal combustion engines in long-range transportation thanks to its scalability, liquid storage, and favorable combustion properties. However, the distinction between different injection and ignition strategies for methanol engines and the resulting combustion mechanisms has not been consistently defined. Moreover, diffusion combustion strategies are favored over premixed strategies in large engines because of higher methanol energy fractions, disregarding the advantages of premixed approaches, such as reduced nitrogen oxide emissions and retrofitting opportunities. To address ambiguity in terminology, this paper proposes a classification framework for injection and ignition strategies and applies it to methanol-fueled internal combustion engines. Subsequently, this review focuses on experimental studies of methanol-fueled heavy-duty engines, which are crucial for transitioning to renewable and sustainable energy in long-range transportation. This research summarizes the impact of the reviewed injection and ignition strategies on combustion characteristics, engine performance and emissions to identify key trends. Furthermore, this review highlights how specific design and operating parameters influence premixed dual-fuel combustion, offering insights into optimizing performance and emissions. While mono-fuel and premixed dual-fuel strategies with methanol can significantly promote methanol use in heavy-duty engines and reduce harmful emissions like nitrogen oxides, a rise in unburned hydrocarbon emissions may also be expected, necessitating further research in this area. Additionally, methanol injection location in premixed dual-fuel schemes affects its cooling effect, influencing volumetric and thermal efficiency. Overall, this study deepens our understanding of methanol's impact on heavy-duty engine performance, highlighting critical challenges to be addressed for advancing sustainable transportation.

The sustainability policy requires the Netherlands Ministry of Defense (MoD) to become largely independent of fossil fuels in the coming decades, while at the same time the geopolitical situation requires the Armed Forces to operate globally. Therefore, the Royal Netherlands Navy needs to reconsider its fuel strategy, to gradually change to energy carriers from renewable sources, and to redesign its power and propulsion system, both to improve efficiency and to reduce its emissions and signatures. The aim of this chapter is to provide a critical review of the challenges and opportunities of the transition to alternative energy carriers and energy systems and to provide a direction for the required research and development towards the future Navy fleet that can operate independently of fossil fuels and with minimal signature. First, the chapter reviews production, expected availability and projected development of cost of the various alternative fuels, with a specific focus on hydrogen, methanol, and renewable drop-in alternatives for naval distillate fuels, according to NATO F-76 spec- ifications. Subsequently, the chapter will discuss the impact of these three fuels on three differently sized navy vessels, that are currently considered for replacement: diving vessels, seagoing support vessels, and future surface combatants. For these three use cases, the chapter also discusses the potential power and propulsion system configurations and the opportunities to reduce signatures by alternative power supplies, such as fuel cells and batteries. Based on this analysis, the chapter will propose a fuel selection strategy for future navy vessels and will discuss the required research and development that is required to achieve the identified opportunities. The chapter closes with conclusions and recommendations on the route towards a future fleet that can operate globally independent of fossil fuels.

The global shipping industry is at a crucial juncture, facing an urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the short to medium term to mitigate climate change. A shift towards alternative fuels is imminent, necessitated by the limitations in current fuel cell and battery technology in terms of power density. Addressing this, navies worldwide are not only exploring the use of alternative fuels to diminish environmental impact but also seeking solutions to reduce emissions signatures and decrease reliance on fossil fuels. In this paper, we investigate the use of hybrid turbocharging to improve the dynamic performance of alternatively fueled combustion engines. We extended an existing and validated Mean Value First Principle (MVFP) engine model of a spark-ignited (SI) throttle-controlled Caterpillar 3508A gas engine with a hybrid turbocharger. The study investigates the impact of electrical power Power-Take-In/Off from the turbocharger shaft on the engine’s air path dynamics for different use cases, considering transient and steady state phases. We demonstrate that a generator set can benefit from hybrid turbocharger by significantly reducing the engine speed drop and settling time after a load step. While accelerating from 0 to cruise speed, propulsion engines benefit less from hybrid turbocharger, due to risk of compressor surge during low engine speeds. The overall results show that simply adding electric power to the turbocharger shaft during transient phases does not unlock the full potential of hybrid turbocharging for alternatively fueled combustion engines. The implementation of hybrid turbocharging requires careful integration, reconsideration of sizing and matching of turbine and compressor, and the combination with blow-off, blow-by, and waste gate valves to prevent compressor surge. However, the capability for electrical power take-off/in within a larger propulsion and electrical power generation plant context suggests a reduction in spinning reserves and an increase in overall system efficiency during steady state. Thus, implementing hybrid turbocharging can play an important role in the transition to alternative fuels and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

The protection of DC systems in mobility applications, such as land transport, aircraft, and shipping, presents significant challenges due to the need for high power density equipment in confined spaces. This paper focuses on DC systems on board ships, for which diverse applications require different power levels, architectures, and protection strategies. Existing protection frameworks and regulations are often inadequate or outdated for the field, leading to certification issues and insufficient fault analysis. This research proposes a use case-based categorization of short circuit currents for primary systems. A reference scenario is created using a simulation model of a 5 MW system in a superyacht to provide a short circuit inventory. The study proposes three contributions. A comprehensive fault inventory, a qualitative categorization, and relevant recommendations for power converter design. The research highlights the importance of fault categorization in understanding the impact of various short circuits on shipboard DC systems. The study emphasizes the importance of the evolution of materials and power converters in developing efficient protection technologies for ships. This work addresses some fundamental gaps in shipboard DC systems, providing a foundation for improved protection strategies and regulations, ultimately contributing to the advancement of protection of shipboard DC systems.

Optimal energy management is still a challenge in full-electric vessels. New degrees of flexibility in the energy management resulting from the load sharing between multiple, heterogenous power sources lead to a suboptimal solution using rule-based control. Therefore, advanced control strategies present a solution to the challenge of finding the optimal control input for a nonlinear multi-objective power and energy problem in sufficient time. As additional benefit, advanced control allows to incorporate multiple objectives in the optimization such as minimization of several emissions, operational costs, and component degradation. Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is a strategy for instantaneous optimization, which is promising for applications in vessels with a high degree of uncertainty in the load profile. It incorporates multiple objectives by assigning equivalent cost factors in the cost function, allowing a flexible expansion of the control problem. In this paper, we present a novel ECMS-based control strategy for a full-electric vessel with the ability to react flexibly to changing mission conditions. First, we define the objectives for the control problem, in this study \ce{CO2} production, hazardous emission production, fuel consumption, energy cost, and the degradation of the battery.
Second, we develop a pareto-front approach for a-posteriori definition of the equivalent cost factors. To showcase energy consumption reduction, we use a benchmark control based on state-of-the-art control strategies. A full-electric case study vessel with high uncertainty in the load profile is chosen to evaluate the proposed controller. Several different load profiles are generated and tested to evaluate the performance of the ECMS controller in dealing with different types of loads. The results will demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed novel control strategy in reducing energy consumption while minimizing other hazardous emission outputs and preserving the health of the battery.

The path to zero-emission shipping is deeply connected to full-electric vessels. One major challenge to enable this technology for broader application is the design of optimal energy management (EM). The flexibility of operating load sharing in hybrid energy systems could lead to suboptimal solutions using rule-based control. Advanced control strategies can be used to find optimal solutions for the EM problem. In addition, the use of advanced control allows for the incorporation of multiple objectives. An important compromise is the decision between minimizing cost and emissions. A promising approach for EM is the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS), which allows for instantaneous optimization of the problem and is suitable for dealing with fast system dynamics. The strategy assigns equivalent factors in the objective function, leading to an easily expandable multi-objective control approach.This paper presents a novel ECMS-based control strategy for health-aware EM of a full-electric vessel, incorporating diesel internal combustion engines, fuel cells, and batteries with flexible changing operation conditions. To this aim, firstly, we introduce our innovative formulation of the multi-objective problem, considering fuel and electricity expenditures and CO₂ and NO_x emissions, alongside the degradation of batteries and fuel cells. Subsequently, we determine the equivalent factors by employing a Pareto Front approach. Lastly, our developed controllers are assessed against a benchmark derived from state-of-the-art strategies. A case study of a full-electric vessel showcase the potential of our proposed solution. The results demonstrate the control's effectiveness in optimizing the operation considering a variety of objectives, such as fuel consumption or emission production, under variable operational conditions.

Methanol is a promising alternative fuel, which can assist in reducing emissions in heavy-duty dual-fuel (DF) compression ignition (CI) engines. In medium and large bore marine engines, DF operation is achieved through either direct injection (DI) or port fuel injection (PFI) of methanol with diesel acting as a DI pilot fuel for ignition. However, the injection of methanol presents a significant challenge due to its high latent heat of vaporization and decreased lower heating value (LHV) compared to diesel. Therefore, for the same energy content operation, methanol requires around eight times the amount of heat to evaporate completely in comparison to diesel, which results in lower in-cylinder temperatures. This charge cooling effect leads to a strong negative temperature gradient influencing ignition and flame propagation. This paper aims to quantify the cooling effect of methanol in a heavy-duty dual-fuel DICI engine environment. The presented methodology uses Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to model methanol sprays with validation originating from the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray D experimental data. The CFD models operate within the Lagrangian-Eulerian framework in CONVERGE-CFD using the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes turbulence modelling. Compared to diesel, injecting methanol with the same energy content exhibited up to 100 K more decreased temperature within the mixture. Consequently, this cooled mixture may pose challenges to combustion stability due to the intense temperature gradients. Nonetheless, lower mixture temperature decreases NOx emissions, which can prove beneficial for high methanol energy fractions in dual-fuel DICI engines.

Spark-ignition (SI) engines emerge as a viable solution for specific marine applications, offering low-noise operation and emissions mitigation, as well as great potential to utilize high-octane number alternative fuels, such as methanol, ammonia, and hydrogen. However, heavy-duty (HD) SI engines still face challenges such as knocking and combustion instability. Particularly for lean combustion conditions, these engines exhibit the most pronounced cyclic combustion variations. This paper investigates the combustion stability of a 500 kW marine lean-burn natural-gas (NG) engine, a promising candidate for reducing emissions in marine applications. We focus on analyzing in-cylinder pressure measurements to quantify combustion characteristics, emphasizing cycle-to-cycle combustion variation, and exploring the influence of operating parameters like spark timing (ST) and air excess ratio (λ). Our findings demonstrate a clear trade-off between NO_x and COV_IMEP emissions through variations in the λ and ST. We identified a transition zone characterized by an increasing number of late-burning cycles at higher λ, before partial burning cycles began at further dilution. Following this, we established a new threshold of 6% for COV_IMEP to determine unstable combustion. Notably, increasing dilution from a λ of 1.12 to 1.61 decreased NO_x emissions from 17.83 g/kWh to 0.16 g/kWh, well below IMO Tier III standards, while COV_IMEP increased from 1.72% to 13.42%. These insights highlight the potential for advancing SI technology for marine applications and the need for further research to optimize both combustion and emissions in such engines.

Methanol has emerged as a cost-effective and scalable alternative fuel for the maritime sector. However, the use of methanol in marine engines is limited by the unknown characteristics of methanol sprays when introduced through retrofitted port fuel injection (PFI) systems. The present study investigates the characteristics of methanol sprays under relevant conditions for marine engines, such as low injection pressure PFI. The primary objective of this research is to advance knowledge into key spray characteristics, including spray penetration, droplet size, atomization quality, and evaporation. The proposed methodology evaluates the efficacy of state-of-the-art computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models in simulating PFI marine engine spray conditions. Moreover, the study compares the performance of the Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH-RT) and Taylor Analogy Breakup (TAB) droplet breakup models under low injection pressure conditions. The results demonstrated that the KH-RT model does not predict any droplet breakup occurrence suggesting that the TAB model is more suitable for the given conditions. Furthermore, the liquid penetration of the spray was observed to align with the outcomes reported in previous experimental literature on methanol sprays. Nevertheless, the droplet sizes for low pressure injectors appear relatively large, indicating poor spray atomization, which impedes rapid evaporation and increases the risk of wall wetting in the inlet manifold and combustion chamber.

This paper proposes an integrated gate driver featuring soft turn-off and current limiting for a solid-state circuit breaker in primary shipboard DC systems. The added functionalities allow solid-state circuit breakers to mitigate part of the voltage resonances caused by a hard turn-off, and to reduce unnecessary tripping during overloading events. The proposed design is based on well-known DC protection strategies, which are enhanced by the custom gate driver, simulated in SPICE software. The paper shows that the proposed strategy effectively attenuates the adverse effects of the hard turn-off present in popular off-the-shelf devices, while effectively breaking the fault current. The low propagation delay of the selected components facilitates the rapid break of the current, reaching approximately 69A peak. In addition, the latch current limiter prevents the feeder from overloading, creating a voltage drop of 51% for tens of nanoseconds. The results are promising in motivating future prototyping of the design in an attempt to accelerate the acceptance of shipboard DC systems.

The third Naval Engineering and Ship Control special edition of the Journal of Marine Engineering and Technology aims to present cutting-edge research on naval engineering and ship control, as was presented during the International Naval Engineering Conference and Exhibition (INEC) and the International Ship Control Systems Symposium (iSCSS), held together in Delft in 2022.

Editorial Special Issue: Naval Engineering and Ship Control II

Maritime industry has set ambitious goals to drastically reduce its greenhouse gas emissions through stipulating and enforcing a number of energy assessment measures. Unfortunately, measures like the EEDI, EEXI, SEEMP and CII do not account for the operational and environmental uncertainty of operations at sea, even though they do provide a first means of evaluating the carbon footprint of ships. The increasing availability of high-frequency operational data offers the opportunity to quantify and account for this uncertainty in energy performance predictions. Current methods to evaluate and predict energy performance at a whole energy system level do not sufficiently account for operational and environmental uncertainty. In this work, we propose a digital twin that accurately predicts the fuel consumption and carbon footprint of the hybrid propulsion system of an Ocean-going Patrol Vessel (OPV) of the Royal Netherlands Navy under the aggregate effect of operational and environmental uncertainty. It combines first-principle steady-state models with machine learning algorithms to reach an accuracy of less than 5% MAPE on both mechanical and electrical propulsion, while bringing a 40% to 50% improvement over a model that does not utilise machine learning algorithms. Results over actual voyage intervals indicate a prediction accuracy of consumed fuel and carbon intensity within 2.5% accounting for a confidence interval of 95%. Finally, the direct comparison between mechanical and electrical propulsion showed no clear energy-saving benefits and a strong dependency of the results on each voyage's specific operational and environmental conditions.

Navies worldwide are exploring the use of alternative fuels for their vessels, aiming to cut down greenhouse gas emissions and lessen their reliance on fossil fuels. This effort also seeks to reduce their environmental impact and emissions signatures. However, combustion engines running on low reactivity fuels, including most alternative fuels like natural gas or alcohols, are limited by their lower load acceptance compared to diesel engines. As a result, they may not meet the stringent naval requirements for dynamic load capacity in power generation. A high dynamic loading capacity is a precondition for high maneuverability of the vessel on the one hand and handling of pulsed power loads and step loads caused by rail-guns and directed energy weapons on the other hand. Previous research into the dynamic response of natural gas engines required detailed in-cylinder combustion models to predict knock. These 0D/1D simulation models rely on extensive data to calibrate the combustion model, which is generally unavailable to the naval engineer designing a propulsion or energy system. Additionally, these simulation models require a significant amount of computational power and do rarely run in real-time. This study predicts the dynamic response using a Mean Value First Principle (MVFP) engine model based on the filling and emptying approach and turbocharger performance maps derived from limited data and measurements. Initially, the model is calibrated using engine data provided by the manufacturer and experimental measurements in steady state on a spark-ignited Caterpillar 3508A gas engine driving a generator at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. Additional calibrations are performed using experimental measurements of the dynamic response to step loads. Analysis of the simulation results reveals the model’s capability to predict the dynamic response of the air intake and exhaust system while being able to run in real-time. The results further show that steady-state simulations do not consider the effect of turbocharger inertia and lagging fresh air supply on the thermal loading and knock probability of the engine sufficiently. This paper underlines the significance of implementing the air and exhaust path dynamics, including turbocharger performance models, in mean-value models when investigating combustion engines operating on low reactivity fuels. Furthermore, the paper provides guidance on the minimum required number of measurements and load steps to calibrate a mean value model for the prediction of the engine operating parameters under dynamic loads. The resulting model can be used to establish limitations for the loads on the electric grid and evaluate control strategies to improve the combustion engine generator and electrical systems’ performance.

This article gives an overview of challenges in primary distribution, protections, and power scalability for shipboard dc systems. Given that dc technology is in development, several aspects of shipboard systems have not yet been sufficiently devised to ensure the protection and efficiency demanded. Several issues in dc systems arise from the lack of complete relevant standardization from different regulation bodies. Unipolar and bipolar bus architectures have application-specific advantages that are discussed and compared. The placement of power electronics in dc systems creates opportunities for switchboard design, and this article compares the centralized and distributed approaches. Likewise, protection architectures for shipboard dc systems have challenges. Breaker-based protection utilizes slow fuses, mechanical circuit breakers, and solid-state circuit breakers. In addition, power-electronics-based protection embeds the protective circuit in the power converters, but its development lags. This article compares the state-of-the-art technologies, reviewing their main features. Finally, the power requirement of various applications and the low production rate of vessels force the designers to utilize commercial off-the-shelf converters to scale up power. The misuse of such converters, the modular topologies, and power electronics building blocks are exposed highlighting challenges and opportunities toward the mass adoption of dc systems onboard maritime vessels.

Deterministic models based on the laws of physics, as well as data-driven models, are often used to assess the current state of vessels and their systems, as well as predict their future behaviour. Predictive maintenance methodologies (i.e., Condition Based Maintenance) and advanced control strategies (i.e., Model Predictive Control) are built upon the use of such numerical tools to identify ensuing performance shifts. In fact, forecasting near-future performance can substantially contribute to enhancing operational efficiency and enabling advanced system control. Data from modern sensor technology, which has become more readily available, combined with automatic control systems capable of prescribing optimal control strategies, can improve vessel operation and reduce energy consumption. A data-driven model that relies on recent advances in Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Data Mining, leveraging historical observations is employed to forecast a vessel’s onboard power generation trends as a function of the past, present, and future behaviour of a ship and its systems. To prove the framework, the proposed methodology is tested on real data collected from the Integrated Platform Management System of an Oceangoing Patrol Vessel of the Royal Netherlands Navy. The developed data-driven model is achieves high forecasting accuracy in the near-term. The authors foresee that the proposed methodology could be used as part of an electric energy control strategy, within a more integrated and intelligent mission planning framework.

Progressing targets on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission reduction urge the Netherlands Ministry of Defense (NL MoD) to reduce GHG emissions, without sacrificing striking power. The Royal Netherlands Navy (RNLN) is investigating the replacement of the Air Defense and Command Frigate (LCF) between 2030 and 2040 by a Large Surface Combatant. As it will be impossible to achieve substantial reduction of GHG emissions through energy-saving technologies, sustainable fuels need to be implemented in the design. In this paper, a literature review is presented to establish possible directions for the strategy to migrate future naval combatants from current fossil fuels to future sustainable fuels. We examined the effect of short- and long-carbon chain sustainable fuels, sustainable methanol and sustainable diesel, respectively, on the replacement Large Surface Combatant; specifically their advantages, disadvantages, production routes, future production cost estimates and availability to give an understanding which pathways can help the NL MoD to achieve their stated GHG emissions reduction goals. Moreover, we present three different design concepts with respect to fuel composition and propulsion configuration on which the impact of the established fuels is qualitatively examined. Firstly, operating on methanol has a significant impact on the design of a large surface combatant: the endurance of the ship is more than halved or the tank capacity has to be increased by 700 to 900 m3 ; the ship might need a longer machinery space to allow for more propulsion engines to compensate for the increased power requirement and unavailability of gas turbines on methanol; and required auxiliary and safety systems add further volume area to the engine room. Secondly, sustainable diesel is a drop-in fuel, which makes blending of sustainable diesel with fossil diesel possible in the existing infrastructure allowing a gradual transfer from fossil diesel to sustainable diesel. However, the production is less efficient in a well-to-wake approach and the cost of Bio-diesel and E-diesel is 5% to 30% more expensive with a mean estimated additional cost of 6 C/GJ compared to methanol. Finally, navies could consider a two-fuel strategy: sail on methanol during operations with limited autonomy, typically in peace time, and operate on diesel during operations with high autonomy, during war time operations. In this case the design needs to include both diesel and methanol fuel systems and additional space for methanol safety measures. In order to more exactly quantify the impact of methanol on the design, a concept design iteration is required, which is identified as research for future work.

Ship designers hardly ever receive feedback from the actual operation of their designs apart from sea acceptance trials. Similarly, crews operating the vessels do not receive a clear picture of the energy performance and environmental footprint of different options. This paper proposes a methodology based on operational data from continuous monitoring, and applies it to an ocean patrol vessel of the Royal Netherlands Navy in order to identify the impact of diverse operational conditions on energy performance over the whole operating range, but also to examine the decision to equip the vessel with hybrid propulsion. Specifically, it introduces mean energy effectiveness indicator and mean total energy efficiency over discretised vessel speed, as the main tool in quantifying the energy gains and losses to assist in making better-advised design and operational decisions. Moreover, it demonstrates a dataset enrichment procedure, using manufacturers' information, in case not all needed sensors are available. Results suggest that electrical propulsion was 15–25% less efficient than the best mechanical propulsion mode, and on the overall energy performance of the vessel, increasing speed by 1 knot caused a 7% and 14% increase over the minimum (Formula presented.) /mile emissions between 8 and 14, and above 14 knots respectively.