How well spent is public money concerning sustainability goals? How effective and efficient are these policies? Even though it is widely acknowledged that actions against climate change are urgently needed in the near future, policy makers little insight in how potential policies can be designed most effectively. To evaluate the impacts of sustainability policies on industry, such as carbon taxes and hydrogen subsidies, policies should be included within industrial cluster models. This policy modelling approach leads to effective and efficient use of public finance and time. This research foresees in this demand by applying a module thinking strategy. This allows for the creation of plug-and-play policy modules that can be used in future research to determine the most effective or efficient policy to achieve sustainable industrial clusters. To this end, scope variables are identified that provide buttons to design policies. Future research should focus on validating these scope variables to a further extend and potentially enable generalisation of the policy modules. The authors choice to use linear optimization resulted in only being able to evaluate generation based policies (like feed-in tariffs). Designing also investment based policies (like lump-sum subsidies) requires further attention.

How well spent is public money concerning sustainability goals? How effective and efficient are these policies? Even though it is widely acknowledged that actions against climate change are urgently needed in the near future, policy makers little insight in how potential policies can be designed most effectively. To evaluate the impacts of sustainability policies on industry, such as carbon taxes and hydrogen subsidies, policies should be included within industrial cluster models. This policy modelling approach leads to effective and efficient use of public finance and time. This research foresees in this demand by applying a module thinking strategy. This allows for the creation of plug-and-play policy modules that can be used in future research to determine the most effective or efficient policy to achieve sustainable industrial clusters. To this end, scope variables are identified that provide buttons to design policies. Future research should focus on validating these scope variables to a further extend and potentially enable generalisation of the policy modules. The authors choice to use linear optimization resulted in only being able to evaluate generation based policies (like feed-in tariffs). Designing also investment based policies (like lump-sum subsidies) requires further attention.

Thirteen percent of the world’s population currently does not have access to electricity. This lack of access to electricity limits the overall development. Having access to clean energy can provide education access, productivity and possibilities for economic growth. Frugal innovations are new or improved products, with a lower cost and fewer used resources in their production chain, while maintaining quality, achieving predefined criteria, fulfilling a specific purpose and are user-friendly. Frugal solar-photovoltaic systems, are one of the possible technologies that could be able to contribute to reducing the number of people without access to electricity. Despite the potential of frugal solar-PV systems for reducing energy poverty, market diffusion of these innovations is not a given. Political risks can pose a barrier to the market diffusion of these innovations, due to endangering a stable environment for development and investments.
However, the span of this relationship, specifically in the combination with frugal solar-PV systems, is unknown. To analyse this, the following main research question has been posed in this research: ‘To what extent is there a relationship between political risks and the market diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems?’. The answer to this research question has been researched with a mixed-methods research approach. First, a quantitative analysis is performed with a correlation analysis. The second phase includes qualitative research. Based on the results of the quantitative results, the factors which could influence the diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems in Uganda and Namibia are analysed with means of case studies and interviews.
The correlation analysis showed that there is no relationship between political risks and the diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems. There are too little significant results to convince that there is a relationship between the political risks and the diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems worldwide and per continent. Given the fact that this is a research area where little operationalising has been done so far, it is also important to find possible explanations for this result. Based on the case studies and interviews, it can be stated that that there are more factors playing a role in the diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems than the included political risks. For example, the need for frugal innovations, (renewable) energy technologies which are already invested in, the varying degree of involvement of foreign investors and non-governmental organisations, the history of relationships with other countries and current trading agreements.
To conclude, this research has contributed to the knowledge gaps and scientific debates in the frugal innovation field by looking at the market diffusion of these systems and the possible role political risks can play in this process. Valuable knowledge has been gathered, which has contributed in filling in gaps in academic research: political risks have been operationalised, a contribution has been made in the field of diffusion theories, specifically for frugal innovations, and the scope of the extent of a relationship between political risks and the diffusion of frugal solar-PV systems has been determined. The results of this research can hopefully on the long term contribute to increasing the percentage of people having access to affordable and renewable generated electricity and reducing the energy poverty worldwide.

The built environment needs to become completely sustainable before 2050. Hydrogen is seen as a suitable resource to help in achieving this goal. In a hydrogen system, the predefined high level of reliability, as stands today, affects the affordability of the system. The households are the users and payers of the system. The method used is Discrete Choce Modeling. This research identifies a gap between the Willingness To Pay (WTP) for reliability and the current cost of this level of reliability. Reliability should not be a goal on its own. The maintained level of reliability should be optimized together with the affordability of the system.

The built environment needs to become completely sustainable before 2050. Hydrogen is seen as a suitable resource to help in achieving this goal. In a hydrogen system, the predefined high level of reliability, as stands today, affects the affordability of the system. The households are the users and payers of the system. The method used is Discrete Choce Modeling. This research identifies a gap between the Willingness To Pay (WTP) for reliability and the current cost of this level of reliability. Reliability should not be a goal on its own. The maintained level of reliability should be optimized together with the affordability of the system.

Most countries have shown their concern towards global warming and made commitments to decrease carbon emissions. Energy usage will have to become more efficient and generated by an increasing amount of sustainable resources. Hard-to-abate industries will require incentives to decarbonize their processes. Research shows that consumer-facing companies (CFCs) are willing to and can incentivize upstream production to decarbonize processes. Literature research concludes that steel, ammonia, methanol and refineries are highly dependent on hydrogen to be decarbonized. Demand sectors of these heavy industries are analyzed to identify potential demand for hydrogen-based products, and whether their value proposition towards consumers increases using hydrogen-based products. Some case studies on CFCs using heavy industry’s products do confirm this. A table with scores per industry is provided to show the relative degree of downstream capability and willingness to decarbonize upstream production. The research shows that the steel sector will be the most applicable industry to be incentivized from a CFC’s perspective, followed by ammonia and to less extent methanol and refineries. CFC initiated decarbonization mechanisms are qualitatively sorted and discussed for applicability on hydrogen-based transition. The mechanisms holding the highest potential to initiate upstream decarbonization are discussed regarding applicability for the steel industry. Business model innovation, industry & sector level collaboration, performance standards and industry & market standards are considered to have the highest potential among CFC mechanisms to reduce risks in transitioning upstream industries.

Most countries have shown their concern towards global warming and made commitments to decrease carbon emissions. Energy usage will have to become more efficient and generated by an increasing amount of sustainable resources. Hard-to-abate industries will require incentives to decarbonize their processes. Research shows that consumer-facing companies (CFCs) are willing to and can incentivize upstream production to decarbonize processes. Literature research concludes that steel, ammonia, methanol and refineries are highly dependent on hydrogen to be decarbonized. Demand sectors of these heavy industries are analyzed to identify potential demand for hydrogen-based products, and whether their value proposition towards consumers increases using hydrogen-based products. Some case studies on CFCs using heavy industry’s products do confirm this. A table with scores per industry is provided to show the relative degree of downstream capability and willingness to decarbonize upstream production. The research shows that the steel sector will be the most applicable industry to be incentivized from a CFC’s perspective, followed by ammonia and to less extent methanol and refineries. CFC initiated decarbonization mechanisms are qualitatively sorted and discussed for applicability on hydrogen-based transition. The mechanisms holding the highest potential to initiate upstream decarbonization are discussed regarding applicability for the steel industry. Business model innovation, industry & sector level collaboration, performance standards and industry & market standards are considered to have the highest potential among CFC mechanisms to reduce risks in transitioning upstream industries.

Abstract The technical and geographical characteristics of fossil fuels have shaped interstate energy relations for decades. The ongoing energy transition leads to an increasing share of renewables in the electricity mix. Since technical and geographical characteristics of renewables differ significantly from those of fossil fuels, it is likely that renewables affect energy relations between countries in a different way. It is yet unknown how these deviating characteristics will exactly influence the international energy relations, and evidence from concrete cases is missing. This study therefore examines the geopolitical implications of wind power in the Danish electricity system. The aim is to assess how interstate energy relations shifted between 1990 and 2018, and whether these shifts can be attributed to the technical and geographical characteristics of wind power. A framework of analysis is constructed to outline the geopolitical implications in 1990 and 2018. Desk research and expert interviews are used to obtain the data. The research concludes that the implications of the transition have been rather positive for Denmark. While sometimes depending on its neighbours for electricity supply, Denmark is still able to safeguard energy security, generate revenues and gain global political influence by sharing knowledge. Further research should outline the implications for other types of renewable energy sources and focus on the geopolitical implications of wind power in other regions.

Abstract The technical and geographical characteristics of fossil fuels have shaped interstate energy relations for decades. The ongoing energy transition leads to an increasing share of renewables in the electricity mix. Since technical and geographical characteristics of renewables differ significantly from those of fossil fuels, it is likely that renewables affect energy relations between countries in a different way. It is yet unknown how these deviating characteristics will exactly influence the international energy relations, and evidence from concrete cases is missing. This study therefore examines the geopolitical implications of wind power in the Danish electricity system. The aim is to assess how interstate energy relations shifted between 1990 and 2018, and whether these shifts can be attributed to the technical and geographical characteristics of wind power. A framework of analysis is constructed to outline the geopolitical implications in 1990 and 2018. Desk research and expert interviews are used to obtain the data. The research concludes that the implications of the transition have been rather positive for Denmark. While sometimes depending on its neighbours for electricity supply, Denmark is still able to safeguard energy security, generate revenues and gain global political influence by sharing knowledge. Further research should outline the implications for other types of renewable energy sources and focus on the geopolitical implications of wind power in other regions.

In this thesis the Dutch consumer’ trade-off between hydrogen fuel cell technology and battery electric vehicles has been studied and identified which policy factors are effective to enable a FCEV breakthrough in the Netherlands. The consumer trade-off between different vehicle attributes is estimated by applying a discrete choice experiment and using the choice data to build a discrete choice model. A multinomial logit model was used to estimate the taste coefficients and based on this obtained coefficients the attribute importance is estimated. In order to understand the importance of policy factors we simulated different policy options to assess the impact on the market shares of FCEVs and BEVs. Finally, policy recommendation are made based on the policy effectiveness and its cost-effectiveness and feasibility.

In this thesis the Dutch consumer’ trade-off between hydrogen fuel cell technology and battery electric vehicles has been studied and identified which policy factors are effective to enable a FCEV breakthrough in the Netherlands. The consumer trade-off between different vehicle attributes is estimated by applying a discrete choice experiment and using the choice data to build a discrete choice model. A multinomial logit model was used to estimate the taste coefficients and based on this obtained coefficients the attribute importance is estimated. In order to understand the importance of policy factors we simulated different policy options to assess the impact on the market shares of FCEVs and BEVs. Finally, policy recommendation are made based on the policy effectiveness and its cost-effectiveness and feasibility.

In a rapidly expanding offshore wind market, governments are evaluating their role in the support of the export of their domestic companies. This thesis looks at what roles governments utilize in the export domain of offshore wind. Four governmental roles are identified and their prevalence is rated in different stages of a novel representation of the export process. A framework of these roles and export stages is applied to the Dutch, Danish and German offshore wind sector by performing a comparative case study. The case studies are conducted using a combination of desk study and 26 expert interviews. The study finds a range of recommendations for the Dutch government to improve its promotion of exports in the Dutch sector. Additionally, the study finds a range of patterns of prevalences of governmental roles which are discussed. The instruments and roles utilized in the earlier stages of the export process are theorized to be more technology-related, the instruments and roles later in the export process are more generalizable for all export processes.

In a socio –technical system, such as the energy system, a network of actors is responsible for developing, monitoring and managing the technical system bounded by institutions on different levels. The network of actors is the social dimension, where the technical system is the technical dimension of the socio -technical system. The development of the technical dimension can already be assessed through the Technology Readiness Level (TRL). The development of the network of actors, or the social dimension; the dimension that mostly causes problems cannot be assessed at this time.
It is, therefore, the aim of this thesis to create a numerical scale that indicates the development of the social dimension of a socio -technical system; the Network Readiness Level (NRL). The scale indicates the development at a low level of analysis; individual projects adding to the bigger socio -technical system. To draft the NRL -scale, the following research question should be answered: ‘What should a numerical indicator to assess the readiness of the social dimension of a socio -technical system look like?
To answer the research question, a list of properties, facilitators and barriers of influence on a socio –technical system was drafted, based on literature. The list was validated by experts based on semi –structure interviews and a sorting exercise. The experts were originating from cases on renewable energy development of Tata Steel IJmuiden . A total of three cases on the development of a wind park, developing solar power at TSIJ, and developing a District Heating network were used. All cases were selected based on their socio -technical characteristics. The outcomes of the interviews served as an input for a 4-step result analysis that lead to the final outcome of this thesis: the NRL –indicator.
The NRL -indicator is a methodology to assess the readiness of a network of actors based on a numerical scale. It serves to indicate the level of development, and addresses what causes the development to lag behind. The NRL -indicator exists of 16 criteria of a collaboration, and a scale of seven levels (NRL1 -NRL7). The methodology includes three important characteristics of a development: dynamic character, different criteria present at the same time, and the development process of the criteria. By combining these criteria, the NRL -indicator is capable of providing a complete overview of the factors of influence on a socio –technological development. The NRL –indicator presents something, a numerical scale to assess the readiness of the social side, which has never been presented before.
This research on the NRL –indicator thus proposes a completely new methodology that could be valuable for managers, policy makers, and other actors in the network of actors of any socio -technical system. Future research is needed to validate the methodology, and prove its applicability. Not only in renewable energy development, but in multiple socio -technical systems, like: construction, pharma, transportation, communication, public -private partnerships, and innovation.