Self-organisation, a concept with wide-ranging applications across disciplines, offers significant potential for advancing railway traffic management. This review synthesises existing definitions, identifies critical gaps, and evaluates the applicability of self-organisation principles to railway traffic management. It also introduces a classification of self-organising systems and emphasises the importance of autonomy and goal orientation for enhancing scalability, robustness, and adaptability in railway operations. Building on insights from common-pool resource management, we propose the concept of autonomous goal-oriented self-organisation, a novel framework that combines decentralised decision-making with dynamic rule adaptation to address the complexities of modern railway systems. Key contributions include a critical synthesis of existing definitions, a novel classification of self-organising systems emphasising autonomy and goal orientation, and a discussion of its implications for railway traffic management. The review bridges disciplinary perspectives to provide a cohesive understanding of self-organisation and proposes a research agenda that prioritises simulation-based validation, interdisciplinary approaches, and adaptive mechanism development. By offering actionable insights and theoretical advancements, the framework has the potential to inspire innovative, equitable, and sustainable solutions for railway traffic management and beyond.

In response to the growing demand for rail transport, next-generation signalling systems are increasingly investigated by the railway community. In particular, the concept of Virtual Coupling (VC) is progressively gaining ground thanks to its potential ability to reduce safe train separation to less than an absolute braking distance. That enables trains to move synchronously in a vehicle-to-vehicle radio-connected convoy. One of the major concerns associated with this concept is the safe and effective control of trains in a convoy when considering varying train resistances and risk factors due to, e.g., sudden degradation in the train and communication performance. This paper develops a novel Predictive Artificial Potential Field (PAPF) approach for safe and effective real-time train control under realistic VC operations. The proposed approach uses a realistic homogeneous strip model of train motion. Moreover, it incorporates a dynamically changing safety margin to take into account risk factor occurrences, such as delays in train control and communication, or sudden emergency braking applications. A simulation-based assessment of the developed method is performed for a high-speed rail corridor in China. Results show that the proposed PAPF control algorithm effectively supervises the safe train separation, preventing activation of emergency brakes even when risk events occur. The method contributes to advancing the state of the art on VC train control.

In response to the growing demand for rail transport, next-generation signalling systems are increasingly investigated by the railway community. In particular, the concept of Virtual Coupling (VC) is progressively gaining ground thanks to its potential ability to reduce safe train separation to less than an absolute braking distance allowing trains to move synchronously in a vehicle-tovehicle radio-connected convoy. One of the major concerns associated with this concept is the safe and effective control of trains in a convoy when considering varying train resistances and risk factors due to, e.g., sudden degradation in the train and communication performance. This paper develops a novel Predictive Artificial Potential Field (PAPF) approach for safe and effective real-time train control under realistic VC operations. The proposed approach uses a realistic homogeneous strip model of train motion and refers to a dynamically changing safety margin to take into account risk factor occurrences such as delays in train control and communication, or sudden emergency braking applications. A simulation-based assessment of the developed method is performed for a high-speed rail corridor in China. Results show that the proposed PAPF control algorithm effectively supervises the safe train separation preventing activation of emergency brakes even when risk events occur. The method contributes to advancing the state of the art on VC train control.

Automatic Train Operation (ATO) aims to partially or fully automate train driving, enhancing railway capacity, punctuality, and energy efficiency. However, a key challenge arises from the mismatch between discrete event-time decisions at the Traffic Management System (TMS) level, assuming fixed running times, and the continuous speed–distance trajectory optimisation at the ATO level, leading to possible misalignments between planned and executed train movements. To bridge this gap, this paper introduces a novel optimisation-based method that dynamically computes Train Path Envelopes (TPEs) based on multiple driving strategies, defined as time targets or windows over a sequence of timing points, which ATO-equipped trains must comply with to align their movements with traffic management constraints. The method follows a two-stage approach: First, a linear programming model determines conflict-free blocking time ranges across the multiple driving strategies. Second, a structured optimisation process establishes operationally feasible TPEs by determining departure tolerances and configuring intermediate timing points. By integrating a critical-block strategy, the optimised TPEs provide the flexibility needed for ATO while accommodating variations in train driving strategies. The method is validated through experiments and a real-life case study in The Netherlands, demonstrating that optimised timing points at critical track locations improve energy efficiency, enhance punctuality, increase capacity, and provide an approach to align traffic management with ATO.

To further improve the capacity on the European railway network, next-generation distance-to-go signalling systems are being developed in the context of the European Train Control System (ETCS). This paper investigates the impact of track discretisation granularity on conflict detection and resolution for ETCS with onboard train integrity monitoring. The study enhances a previously developed model for fixed-block distance-to-go signalling introducing a track discretisation procedure and reformulating safe train separation constraints at switches. The assessment is performed on a junction and a corridor case study, using track discretisations with maximum section lengths from 50 to 800 metres. Though finer discretisations potentially improve the model objective, computation times quickly increase. While the results show minimum effects of the track discretisation on the conflict detection and resolution, they suggest that maximum section lengths of 200 or 400 metres may offer a good balance between solution quality and computation complexity, depending on the track layout and traffic density.

Effective rail traffic management is necessary to mitigate the impact of unforeseen train service disturbances. Traditional decomposition methods, while effective in managing complexity, often struggle to maintain global optimality and real-time responsiveness. In this paper, we propose a novel approach that decomposes the rescheduling problem by means of a selforganising paradigm where trains are intelligent autonomous agents deciding on their decisions after reaching a consensus. The proposed Self-Organized Train Rescheduling (SOTR) algorithm is inspired by the Distributed Constraint Optimization Problem (DCOP) framework. This algorithm treats trains as intelligent agents capable of constructing their own traffic plans, communicating with neighbouring agents, and making decisions that lead to an optimal timetable. Each train, acting as an agent, assesses its situation, predicts conflicts, and negotiates with other trains to find the most efficient solution in regard to total delay. This distributed decision-making process allows for rapid adaptation to dynamic disturbances and ensures scalability to large networks. We validate the effectiveness of our approach by using a micro-simulation tool, demonstrating its ability to minimize secondary delays and maintain network continuity in perturbation scenarios.

Rail Pods are an emerging concept of modular self-propelled rail vehicle which can interchangeably move freight and transport for a more customer-oriented rail service. Pods are envisaged to operate on-demand with the possibility of forming platoons by either physically or virtually coupling at stations. In such a context, it is essential to quantify the actual service capacity of rail pod platooning, taking into account heterogeneous convoy structures and infrastructure constraints such as signalling rules and block occupation. This study extends UIC Code 406/blocking time theory to applied to Pod platoons, proposing a novel optimization model that integrates traction, cruising, and braking speed profiles alongside safe separation constraints. This approach enables coordinated optimization of cruising speeds across various platoon structures to minimize track capacity consumption. The model is applied to a case study considering the ETCS Level 2 signalling system. The results obtained for such a case study illustrate the ability of the proposed model to identify operational speed and composition of rail pods’ platoons which lead to capacity effective use of the existing infrastructure. The proposed method provides potentials for a more flexible allocation of modular rail cars based on demand configuration.

In response to the escalating demand for rail transport, the concept of Virtual Coupling (VC) train operations is progressively gaining ground within the railway sector. The concept of VC aims at reducing safe train separation to less than the absolute braking distance by letting trains move synchronously in radio-connected convoys. One of the major concerns associated with VC is ensuring safe train separation considering realistic risk factors, such as heterogeneous train braking performances and varying track conditions. To address such a safe train separation problem under VC, this paper proposes a novel train control model based on the Artificial Potential Field (APF) method to safely supervise the complete braking process of trains moving in a VC convoy. The proposed model uses a homogeneous strip representation of train length and a Dynamic Safety Margin (DSM) to take into account accurate train dynamics as well as potential risk factors, due to different train acceleration/braking rates, communication delays, unexpected emergency train braking applications, and position measurement errors. The method has been applied to the case of a high-speed line in China. Results show that the APF-based control method can effectively adapt to real-time variations in train dynamics and the operational environment to safely supervise the complete train braking process and avoid collisions even in the case of unplanned emergency braking applications. The proposed APF-based approach shows promising real-time performance which can further contribute to advancing the state of the art on safe train control under VC signalling.

Conflict detection and resolution models typically consider train separation distances based on a number of blocks corresponding to conventional fixed-block signalling systems. However, modern distance-to-go railway signalling systems, such as the European Train Control System (ETCS), use braking curve supervision, resulting in train- and speed-dependent train separation distances. This paper proposes a modelling approach that incorporates train- and speed-dependent brake indication points and the resulting blocking times, enhancing conflict detection and resolution models for distance-to-go signalling. By integrating these enhancements into the state-of-the-art RECIFE-MILP model, a mixed integer linear programming formulation explicitly representing fixed-block distance-to-go signalling is obtained. The enhanced model is evaluated considering the state-of-practice fixed-block distance-to-go signalling system ETCS Level 2, and is compared with the original model for conventional fixed-block signalling in two real-world case studies. Results show that the shorter train separation under distance-to-go signalling leads to different rescheduling decisions, including a significant number of reroutings and some reorderings. With that, reductions in total train delay are achieved for 98% and 55% of the respective case study instances. While the mean reductions are below 1%, reductions of up to 7% are observed. These findings illustrate the operational relevance of incorporating distance-to-go principles into conflict detection and resolution modelling.

Automatic Train Operation (ATO) aims to enhance punctuality, energy efficiency, and reliability by automating driving tasks. Specifically, for mainline railways, an ATO onboard component generates and tracks optimised train trajectories based on time targets or windows at critical network locations, known as timing points, across train routes. These timing points and their associated constraints are specified in the Train Path Envelope (TPE), computed to ensure conflict-free operations. The generation of TPEs relies on dynamic updates of the real-time traffic plan from the Traffic Management System and real-time train statuses (e.g., position and speed). Understanding how TPEs are affected by these updates is essential for effective ATO deployment. To address this, this paper proposes a sensitivity analysis using elementary effects of a TPE generation algorithm, evaluating its response to variations in real-time traffic plans and train status updates. A real-life case study on a Dutch rail corridor with heterogeneous traffic reveals that control timing points can be introduced into the TPE as headways decrease, to homogenise traffic by aligning speed profiles and thus resolving conflicts. Timing point locations remain mostly unchanged, while their associated time windows become more sensitive when placed further along the route. Operational tolerance, which defines the latest conflict-free passing time, becomes more sensitive to headway changes and the distance from the previous stop.

To further improve the capacity on the European railway network, next-generation distance-to-go signalling systems are being developed in the context of the European Train Control System (ETCS). This paper investigates the impact of track discretisation granularity on conflict detection and resolution for ETCS with onboard train integrity monitoring. The study enhances a previously developed model for fixed-block distance-to-go signalling by introducing a track discretisation procedure and reformulating safe train separation constraints at switches. The assessment is performed on a junction and a corridor case study, using track discretisations with maximum section lengths from 50 to 800 m. Though finer discretisations potentially improve the model objective, computation times quickly increase. While the results show minimum effects of the track discretisation on the conflict detection and resolution, they suggest that maximum section lengths of 200 or 400 m may offer a good balance between solution quality and computational complexity, depending on the track layout and traffic density. Generally, reliable rescheduling decisions can already be obtained with a 800-m discretisation.

The railway scheduling problem concerns the determination of trains' scheduled departure and arrival times at stops, and the allocation of capacity in the network. The timetable must be both conflict-free given infrastructure constraints, and stable enough for trains to recover from delays that could occur in normal operations. Existing methods for tactical scheduling contain a tradeoff between having an accurate (microscopic) representation of signalling constraints, and having a simple-enough (macroscopic) infrastructure representation to scale to real-world problem instances. This creates issues for infrastructure managers looking to run more trains on their infrastructure by migrating to Distance-To-Go (DTG) signalling systems (e.g. ETCS Level 2), and to exploit the capabilities of Connected Driver Advisory Systems (C-DAS) and Automatic Train Operation (ATO) to control trains more precisely. In this paper, we present a methodology for incorporating the capabilities of DTG signalling in conjunction with C-DAS and ATO systems into a disjunctive scheduling model for both periodic and nonperiodic instances. We show that the resulting model has both a microscopic infrastructure representation, and a macroscopic computational complexity, allowing railways to quickly compute conflict-free and stable timetables for large problem instances. The resulting model also accurately represents the computation of the brake indication point for both conventional and DTG signalling as a function of the trains' current speed. Tests on a large-scale periodic scheduling instance in the UK show that the model produces timetables with reasonable computation time.

Railways are in need of technological and operational enhancements to achieve the EU strategic vision of a sustainable, integrated transport system. Beside the deployment of digital signalling and automatic train operations, advanced rail traffic management is critical to increase rail transport capacity and provide a seamless intermodal integration. To this aim, the concept of self-organisation has been recently proposed, which involves intelligent trains to autonomously decide and locally negotiate optimised traffic strategies. Although science considers self-organisation key to an efficient flexible rail service, the view of the industry is still unclear. Characterising the industrial perspective is instead essential to evaluate investment and migration plans of future rail developments. This paper addresses such a need by a multi-target Delphi analysis outlining an expert perspective on current traffic management gaps, potentials of self-organisation as well as critical steps and recommendations enabling a paradigm migration. Analysis results indicate that the state-of-practice is limited by technological and legal barriers to transport data sharing, slow rail digitalisation and organisational separation between infrastructure and operations. Traffic self-organisation could overcome current limitations only if it fosters digitalisation, a cooperative business model and policies for intermodal planning and data sharing. The rail market could be expanded by easier investor accessibility and a more attractive demandeffective intermodal rail service. Stakeholders’ reluctance in approving novel business models, policies and rules is however a threat to this paradigm. Feasibility studies, round-tables and joined sector actions are recommended for defining policies, proofof- concepts and plans for migrating to a self-organising rail traffic.

In case of disturbed railway operations, traffic management can apply rescheduling measures to resolve conflicts while minimising delay propagation. This can be optimised by conflict detection and resolution (CDR) models. Usually based on alternative graph or mixed integer linear programming (MILP) formulations, existing models mostly refer to conventional signalling systems in which the track is discretised into blocks. Only at block entries, trains can receive a brake indication. Hence, train separation distances are based on a number of blocks. With the implementation of continuous braking curve supervision in distance-to-go (DTG) signalling systems such as the European Train Control System (ETCS), train separation is based on absolute braking distances. Consequently, an explicit relation between speed and train separation is required in CDR models for DTG signalling. Recently, we enhanced the CDR model RECIFE-MILP to DTG operations. The enhancements relate to track discretisation and speed-dependent train separation. In this research, we investigate the effect of track discretisation granularity on the performance of the enhanced model for next-generation DTG signalling systems: ETCS Level 3 Fixed Virtual Block and Moving Block. The performance is assessed regarding total delay and rescheduling decisions. The results indicate that, depending on the track and traffic scenario, a finer granularity can lead to different rescheduling decisions due to shorter train separation.

For effective railway operations, real-time railway traffic management is crucial. In case of disturbances, traffic management can apply rescheduling and rerouting measures to resolve conflicts while minimising the propagation of delay. To support human dispatchers in taking optimised decisions, conflict detection and resolution (CDR) models are developed. Predominantly based on alternative graphs or mixed integer linear programming (MILP), the existing models mostly refer to conventional signalling systems in which the track is discretised into fixed blocks. Only at block entries, trains can receive a brake indication. Hence, train separation is based on a number of blocks. With the implementation of continuous braking curve supervision in distance-to-go (DTG) signalling systems such as the European Train Control System (ETCS), train separation is based on absolute braking distances. Consequently, an explicit relation between speed and train separation is required in CDR models for DTG signalling. Recently, we proposed enhancements for existing CDR models
to describe DTG operations. The enhancements relate to track discretisation, speed profile options and train separation. We applied these enhancements to RECIFE-MILP, resulting in a tailored CDR model for DTG signalling. In this research, we consider the model for the more advanced DTG signalling systems of ETCS Level 3: Fixed Virtual Block and Moving Block. In these train-centric signalling systems, train position and integrity are monitored onboard
– as opposed to conventional trackside train detection. We update the DTG model accordingly, and we investigate the impact of track discretisation granularity on the model performance. The impact is assessed in terms of delay recovery and rescheduling decisions. The results indicate that, depending on the track and traffic scenario, a finer granularity can lead to different rescheduling and rerouting decisions due to shorter train separation.

Moving Block (MB) and Virtual Coupling (VC) rail signalling will change current train operation paradigm by migrating vital equipment from trackside to onboard to reduce train separation and maintenance costs. Their actual deployment is however constrained by the industry's need to identify configurations of MB and VC signalling equipment which can effectively guarantee safe train movements even under degraded operational conditions involving component faults. In this paper, we analyse the effectivity of MB and VC in safely supervising train separation under nominal and degraded conditions by using an innovative approach which combines Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Stochastic Activity Networks (SAN). An FTA model of unsafe train movement is defined for both MB and VC capturing functional interactions and cause-effect relations among the different signalling components. The FTA is used as a basis to apportion signalling component failure rates needed to feed the SAN model. Effective MB and VC train supervision is analysed by means of SAN-based simulations in the specific scenario of an error in the Train Position Report (TPR) for five rail market segments featuring different traffic characteristics, namely high-speed, mainline, regional, urban and freight. Results show that the thresholds of the design variables depend on the considered signalling system alternative and the investigated market segment. In particular, the TPR delay threshold allowed for MB is higher than for VC. This means that to ensure a safe train movement, VC cannot absorb a TPR delay of longer than 1.5 s, which corresponds to the mainline market segment. For MB instead, the results show that the maximum TPR delay can reach 3.9 s for high-speed and freight railways. In addition, results showed that the integration of an FTA in a SAN model can provide a better understanding of the safety-performance behaviour of a system where VC showed a higher number of braking indications with respect to MB for the same TPR error failure rate. This means that for VC to effectively supervise the train separation at the same safety level as MB, we would need to have a much higher reliability of the TPR. The overall approach can support infrastructure managers, railway undertakings, and rail signalling suppliers in investigating the effectiveness of MB and VC to safely supervise train movements in scenarios involving different types of degraded conditions and failure events. The proposed method can hence support the railway industry in identifying effective and safe design configurations of next-generation rail signalling systems.

Moving Block (MB) and Virtual Coupling (VC) rail signalling will change current train operation paradigm by migrating vital equipment from trackside to onboard to reduce train separation and maintenance costs. Their actual deployment is however constrained by the industry’s need to identify confi gurations of MB and VC signalling equipment which can eff ectively guarantee safe train movements even under de-graded operational conditions involving component faults. In this paper, we analyse the eff ectivity of MB and VC in safely supervising train separation under nominal and degraded conditions by using an innovative approach which combines Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Stochastic Activity Network (SAN). A FTA model of unsafe train movement is defi ned for both MB and VC capturing functional interactions and cause-eff ect relations among the diff erent signalling components. The FTA is then used as a basis to apportion signalling component failure rates needed to feed the SAN model. Eff ective MB and VC train supervision is analysed by means of SAN-based simulations in the specifi c scenario of an error in the Train Position Reporting (TPR) for fi ve rail mar-ket segments featuring diff erent traffi c characteristics, namely high-speed, mainline, regional, urban and freight. Results show that the overall approach can support infra-structure managers, railway undertakings, and rail system suppliers in investigating ef-fectiveness of MB and VC in safely supervising train movements in scenarios involving diff erent types of degraded conditions and failure events. The proposed method can hence support the railway industry in identifying eff ective and safe design confi gura-tions of next-generation rail signalling systems.

Moving Block (MB) and Virtual Coupling (VC) rail signalling will change current train operation paradigm by migrating vital equipment from trackside to onboard to reduce train separation and maintenance costs. Their actual deployment is however constrained by the industry’s need to identify configurations of MB and VC signalling equipment which can effectively guarantee safe train movements even under degraded operational conditions involving component faults. In this paper, we analyse the effectivity of MB and VC in safely supervising train separation under nominal and degraded conditions by using an innovative approach which combines Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Stochastic Activity Network (SAN). A FTA model of unsafe train movement is defined for both MB and VC capturing functional interactions and cause effect relations among the different signalling components. The FTA is then used as a basis to apportion signalling component failure rates needed to feed the SAN model. Effective MB and VC train supervision is analysed by means of SAN-based simulations in the specific scenario of an error in the Train Position Reporting (TPR) for five rail market segments featuring different traffic characteristics, namely high-speed, mainline, regional, urban and freight. Results show that the overall approach can support infrastructure managers, railway undertakings, and rail system suppliers in investigating effectiveness of MB and VC in safely supervising train movements in scenarios involving different types of degraded conditions and failure events. The proposed method can hence support the railway industry in identifying effective and safe design configurations of next-generation rail signalling systems.

This paper reviews the concept of self-organisation as defi ned in diff erent fi elds and attempts to provide a defi nition of goal-oriented self-organization that can be applied in the context of railway traffi c. Based on the provided defi nition a modelling approach for self-organising rail traffi c is then proposed to set the basis for future research and exploration of such a concept which could revolutionise the current rail transport to meet long-term capacity and competitiveness goals envisaged by the railway industry.