The European Union’s Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) aims to address the growing demand and supply chain disruptions of critical raw materials essential for energy and digital transitions. While the Act emphasizes enhancing processing, recycling, and extraction activities within Europe, it does not address the significant spatial and environmental impacts of establishing these facilities. This issue is further complicated by our consumption patterns, which drive increased material use for a better quality of life, thus necessitating more extraction and processing activities.

This thesis examines these implications by focusing on neodymium, a rare earth element, and develops a circular supply chain for neodymium magnets in the Netherlands. Beyond addressing supply chain disruptions, the research critiques the current economic system by exploring different processing capacities within alternative growth paradigms.

The primary method used is scenario building, which illustrates four potential futures for the Netherlands. These scenarios are influenced by various factors such as processing capacities, economic conditions, societal values, and different supply chains. By comparing and evaluating these potential futures, their implications were understood. Key strategies from these extreme scenarios were then integrated to develop a national vision for the Netherlands. This vision is showcased through five strategic locations, each demonstrating the benefits of the vision.

This thesis highlights that the CRMA, which follows the green growth model, may lead to spatial and economic lock-ins, proving unsustainable in the long term under the current socio-economic framework. It emphasizes the necessity for a holistic approach that integrates environmental and spatial considerations, along with long-term planning, into policy-making to ensure socio-ecologically resilient supply chains. Additionally, while building capacities is seen as environmentally taxing this transition can be used to revitalize existing locations by addressing their current issues.

The pressing sustainability challenges have underscored the need for transformative measures within the global economy. The circular economy presents itself as an alternative to traditional linear models and promises transformative change. However, this transformative change is hindered by the remnants of linear thinking embedded in many circular economy definitions. To address this challenge, this research explores conceptual metaphors as a valuable tool for reshaping the understanding of the circular economy. Among these, the forest metaphor offers a compelling perspective, framing the circular economy as a forest. Yet, the potential of the forest metaphor remains theoretical. To determine its ability to drive the transformative change required for a circular economy, it is essential to translate the forest metaphor from theory into practice. Achieving this translation requires the practical implementation of the forest metaphor. According to the Law of the Few, certain key individuals play a disproportionately large role in the successful implementation of novel concepts. Therefore, this research aims to answer the question: How can the individuals most likely to adopt and diffuse the forest metaphor—"the Few"—be distinguished? The research is conducted in two phases. Phase 1 involved profiling the Few through a combination of literature review, expert consultations, and a validation process with focus groups. Nine key themes with 23 profiling criteria were identified, which were synthesized into a framework of three main categories, requiring an individual’s capability, motivation, and situational alignment to fit the profile of the Few. Phase 2 focused on selecting the Few within an organization by translating the profiling criteria into an assessment tool, developed through stakeholder mapping, co-creation, and testing with a small participant panel. The tool uses one question per criterion to assess individuals against the profiling criteria to determine their alignment with the profile of the Few. The results suggest that while the framework provides valuable insights into the profile of the Few, the Few might be more effectively viewed as a dynamic group, with different individuals potentially contributing unique strengths at various stages of the adoption and diffusion of the forest metaphor. As for the assessment tool, the results offer a useful starting point for identifying these key individuals, though its broad focus and reliance on a single question per criterion might limit the depth of its assessment. Therefore, it could function best as an initial filter, paving the way for a multi-stage evaluation process. In conclusion, through the profiling framework and assessment tool, this research provides a method to distinguish the individuals most likely to adopt and diffuse the forest metaphor. This represents an initial step toward bridging the gap between its theoretical potential and practical application, enabling its introduction within organisations.

The climate crisis poses a significant threat to our planet, and the building sector plays a big role in that regard, as it is responsible for 30% of energy consumption and 27% of emissions globally [IEA, 2022]. The sector aims to reduce its impact on the environment through different strategies like transitioning to a circular economy or reducing energy consumption through the implementation of smart systems. However, these systems contain and rely on Critical Raw Materials (CRMs), which is a topic that is so far mostly discussed in regard to renewable energy technologies.

The research shows a gap in knowledge, information, and awareness when it comes to critical materials concerns regarding the built environment, which is demonstrated in the example of an aluminium curtain wall façade. The analysis indicates that façades can indeed contain a high level of critical materials both in regard to the amount as well as the variety of different critical materials. From the research, it is concluded that (1) the use of critical raw materials needs to be reduced wherever possible and (2) if a reduction is not possible, materials need to be kept in the loop as long as possible.

Circular strategies are therefore analysed as prospective mitigation strategies of critical materials concerns. The material policy research indicates that even though the combination of critical materials and circularity in regard to the built environment is not adequately addressed as of yet, effective policymaking could be a helpful tool in regard to the transition towards a more circular built environment and help prevent future bottlenecks in the industry. As a result, the formulated recommendations indicate how policies can address the mitigation of critical materials concerns through circular strategies.

Digital technologies are enablers for a variety of sustainable use cases. The underlying infrastructure for this digital transformation is provided by telecommunication companies through their future technologies. Future telecommunication technologies consist on a variety of raw materials, amongst some are considered to be critical. Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) are associated with a high economic importance, as well as severe supply risks. The goal of this research was to firstly identify which CRMs are contained in future telecommunication technologies and secondly how the demand for them will develop until 2030 or 2050 under slow, fast and full rollout scenarios and compared to current supply levels. Based on that, thirdly strategic choices for telecommunication companies on creating a resilient supply were given. The design of the study was build up in the respective order and was based on a case study research for a Dutch telecommunication service provider and expert interviews with technology suppliers and research institutes in the network. The focus technologies included 5G Technologies, Photonics, Edge Computing and Quantum Technologies. The general finding was that a broad range of CRMs could be identified in the network equipment of these technologies, with the CRMs Erbium, Gallium, Germanium, Phosphorous, Silicon and Titanium having the highest frequency of occurrence. Amongst them, Erbium has also very high supply risks. When looking at the demand development for CRMs contained in future telecommunication technologies, an 8-fold increase under a slow rollout scenario until 2030, a 15-fold increase under a fast rollout and a 16-fold increase under the full rollout scenario could be identified. The demand by far comes mostly from 5G Technologies. When comparing the future demand with current supply, specifically 14 CRMs could be identified where demand will exceed supply: Beryllium, Natural Graphite, Dysprosium, Gallium, Germanium, Magnesium, Neodymium, Palladium, Ruthenium, Tantalum, Terbium, Titanium, Thulium and Yttrium. From this is could be concluded that if supply cannot meet demand, the future rollout of these technologies is at stake resulting in company’s corporate strategies being at risk and thus the future of the telecommunication industry and a global digital transformation. In order to tackle these bottlenecks of demand and supply, there are strategic choices companies can chose for creating supply chain resilience for material criticality. Supply risks mitigating strategies included the design of technologies after eco-design principles, increase recycling rates, investigate into substitution potential, diversity supply geographically as well as ownership based, avoid conflict minerals by responsible sourcing, stockpiling, lobbying for new mining activities, foster cross-chain collaboration and redesign whole business models after circular economy principles. All of these strategies can be strategic choices for telecommunication companies and are advised to be considered at the company level.

Context
The “take-make-dispose” linear model has proven to be highly unsustainable during the past decades. A circular economy has emerged as a model that is restorative by design, and a response towards the high material and energy intensive linear model. However, a transition to a circular built environment implies a radical change in design and construction. Remanufacturing is one of the three product life extension strategies located in the technical cycles from the circular economy. It is an alternative to demolition, and it allows products to be longer in use, with a constant upgrade. However, for products to be remanufactured, they have to be designed according to certain guidelines, and supported by the application of circular business models.
Kawneer, an American manufacturer of aluminium architectural systems and products, seeks to optimize façade systems to meet the demand for circular building products. This means that the components of the systems should be designed with product properties such as disassembly, modularity, and flexibility, which allows them to be circular. Different (re)life options, such as reuse, remanufacturing, and refurbishment, should also be taken into account from the early design stages. The RT82HI+ window system is one of the most competent products manufactured by Kawneer. However, the only (re)life option currently available is recycling. Therefore, the product is currently unable to meet the requirements of a circular building product.
Objective
The objective of the presented research is to evaluate the performance of the existing façade components of the RT82HI+ window system in a circular economy, and according to such, redesign towards remanufacturing and other product-life extension strategies.
This is done, first, through the understanding of the relationship and dependency among the product design, development, and product-life extension, especially remanufacturing. Secondly, through an analysis of the current lifecycle scenarios of the existing components, and identification of their challenges and potentials in a circular economy. And third, through the elaboration of three different circular window systems that react upon the main findings from the analysis.
Main Findings
Three different designs are explored. The first one is an optimization of the existing RT 82 HI +, where only the critical aspects are redesigned. The second and third are hybrid variants that combine aluminum with wood polymer composite pro les (WPC). These three designs are assessed under the principles of DfD (Design for Disassembly), DfA (Design for Adaptability), and DfRem (Design for Re- manufacturing). Additionally, different remanufacturing, reuse, and adaptability scenarios are analyses to understand the performance of the window system in a circular economy.
On the other hand, four main different types of façade systems and construction are reviewed to understand the type of attachment of the window to the construction. This resulted in a critical point because it could affect the performance of the window in terms of circularity.
The results indicated improvements in different aspects. The key one was ease of assembly and disassembly, but also in terms of type of connections, and geometry of product edges. Furthermore, it is discussed how the loop is closed, and the importance of the different stakeholders involved in the façade manufacturing and construction area.

Concrete consumption is one of the major environmental issues of our time. This building material is used twice as much as all the other building materials combined. Furthermore, the United Nations predicts that human global population will reach 10 billion inhabitants by 2050. Correspondingly, it is projected that due to global migration from land to cities, almost 75% of the world’s population will be urbanized. For the building industry, this means that in thirty years we will roughly equal the entire volume of the construction made in the world’s history. In other words, the consumption of concrete is predicted to double over the next three decades. Given the importance that concrete has for the building industry, the ability to optimise the material usage can have a global impact in reducing both pressure from the natural environment and carbon footprint. To fully exploit the potential of concrete in a cost-effective and environmentally sensible way represents one of the greatest challenges posed to building technology today. The research question has been formulated based on this problem statement: How can a prefabricated structural concrete slab be designed to optimise the use of concrete, minimise material waste and allow for efficient (dis)assembly and reuse to extend its exploitation life? Currently, one of the main issues to reuse concrete elements is the implementation of steel rebars as reinforcement. This type of reinforcement corrodes and causes internal cracks in the concrete elements. This means that after time, the element cannot be reused as its structural capacity is compromised. This has led this research towards investigating novel strategies to provide concrete with tensile strength. Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) emerges as a potential solution. However, it is well known that the performance of FRC largely depends on the orientation of its fibres. To achieve this, production methods that can achieve a controlled fibre orientation are also reviewed. Here, 3D printing concrete (3DCP) emerges as an approach worthy to be explored. It has been observed that the fibres orient parallel to the deposition of the concrete layer. If this strategy is applied, this means that a printing path can be programmed and, the fibres will orient accordingly. A general outlook of 3DCP characteristics is reviewed in this research. Consequently, such characteristics are applied to the design of the reusable 3DCP slab. Besides the material characteristics, Circular Economy (CE) presents strategies to exploit the full potential and retain the optimal value of the physical environment. Principles of the CE are reviewed in this research through literature study. Special consideration has been put in the principle of Design for Reuse (DfR) as the objective of this research is to enable multi service-lives of the new 3DCP slab. Suitable aspects have been identified and applied to the design based on the properties of concrete and fabrication techniques. Here, the engineering of dry mechanical connections is sensible as the 3DCP slab can be efficiently demounted without the need to break or cut part of the slab. The simplicity of the connections is crucial in this research as this translates into savings of energy and CO2 emissions due to a rapid building process. Furthermore, the simplicity of the connection means an easy replacement upon damage without affectation to the whole concrete slab. The engineering and mechanical performance of the connections are addressed in this research. To conclude the research, the utility of the reusable 3DCP slab is studied. The results are compared to those of a traditional concrete slab and conclusions are drawn to assess the relevance of this new approach to reduce concrete consumption. Economic utility, policies and business models are excluded from this research as they are not the main focus and due to time constraints. This master thesis answers the research question by designing a concrete slab that can optimise the usage of concrete. This is achieved both by material characteristics, production process and the engineering of demountable connections. However, further physical research and testing are needed to properly evaluate the production process and its applicability to the current design. Nevertheless, the result looks promising.

The master graduation project focusses on accelerating the transition towards the circular economy. Specifically it is a design for an intervention on an existing building on the Marineterrein making it into start-up incubator in a way consistent with the thought frame of the Circular economy. The project is a exploration of the role of the architect within the proposed circular economy. In depth research is conducted into blockchain technology by a startup Circularise to explore how this technology could stimulate the transition towards a circular economy within the Built Environment industry. The design is intended to combine the whole Marineterrein into a transition campus by fulfilling the necessary program and urban function needed. The design is built up by a set of modules that is made out of elements that are all leased by a number of manufacturers. Main conclusions can be found within the emphasis on the standardized sizes and easy connections of these elements and the effect that these decisions have on the design. Other conclusions include 1) the need of the continues involvement of the architect within the project by creating policies for the use of the building by the start-ups and pro-actively stimulate the living lab function of the building and 2) the need for a ‘creative’ architect to combine the different element into ‘good’ architecture instead of just a combination of different element. The latter conclusion is incorporated in this design by finding a set of design principles to guide the design found in the history and context of the Marineterrein and the concept of the circular start-up incubator.

The building industry consumes a lot of energy, uses a lot of materials and generates a lot of waste. In order to achieve sustainable development, it has to change its focus from merely the use phase to the complete life cycle of buildings. The PD lab is an experimental platform that does so, by setting its aim to develop a modular and demountable building system that fits in a circular economy. In the spring of 2017, a prototype of the PD lab was built: the PD test lab. The cladding system that was applied, is made of an aluminium sandwich material, which is non-renewable, difficult to recycle and therefore not optimal for application in the circular economy. Biobased materials however are organic, renewable materials and might fit better in a circular economy.

This thesis researches the potentials of biobased materials for application as cladding material by developing a rainscreen cladding system for the PD lab. Based on a material assessment, the bio-composite material ‘Resysta’ is chosen as a starting point for the concept development. For seven aspects of the cladding system, which are: assembly, connection, horizontal joints, vertical joints, sub-construction, panel stiffness and processing technique, concepts are generated. The most suitable aspect concepts are then combined into five total concept. Initially, the total concept of extruded panels is elaborated. However, critical limitations of extrusion are encountered later on in the design process. These limitations are: open ends of the extruded panels and a processing technique which is inflexible, demands high initial investments and allows a maximum panel width of 300 milometers. Instead, the tapered panel total concept is elaborated. Based on the design problems that were found during the construction of the aluminium sandwich cladding system, special attention is given to the functions of drainage, cavity ventilation, aesthetics, assembly, space for adjustment and thermal expansion. Eventually, a biobased cladding system for the PD lab is achieved that fulfils these functions.

In order to bring the PD lab and its cladding system to the next level, further research is necessary on biobased materials, the development of critical cladding parts, processing techniques and the integration of the system in the circular economy.