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S. Sharma
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29 records found
1
Journal article
(2026)
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Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Abide Aşıkoğlu, Antonio Maria D’Altri, Satyadhrik Sharma, Francesco Messali
This paper presents a modeling approach for high-fidelity blind-prediction of dynamic responses of 3D-printed masonry-like structures, as part of a contest organized by Pacific Earthquake Research Center (PEER) for simulating shake table tests on 29 identical ⨅-shaped 1:15-scaled sand-based 3D-printed specimens, each subjected to a different earthquake. The contest challenged participants to predict experimental outcomes without access to test results. Leveraging their modeling approach originally developed for regular masonry, the authors proposed an innovative methodology to simulate these structures, implementing extensions to overcome challenges such as representing their continuum nature within a discrete block-and-joint framework and simulating their small-scale response via 1:1-scale counterparts. The numerical model blind-predicted the experimental outcomes with highest accuracy among participants. Parametric studies, before and after access to modal characteristics, showed the importance of such information for simulation accuracy, and the ability of the approach to investigate variability of dynamic responses in complement to physical tests.
...
This paper presents a modeling approach for high-fidelity blind-prediction of dynamic responses of 3D-printed masonry-like structures, as part of a contest organized by Pacific Earthquake Research Center (PEER) for simulating shake table tests on 29 identical ⨅-shaped 1:15-scaled sand-based 3D-printed specimens, each subjected to a different earthquake. The contest challenged participants to predict experimental outcomes without access to test results. Leveraging their modeling approach originally developed for regular masonry, the authors proposed an innovative methodology to simulate these structures, implementing extensions to overcome challenges such as representing their continuum nature within a discrete block-and-joint framework and simulating their small-scale response via 1:1-scale counterparts. The numerical model blind-predicted the experimental outcomes with highest accuracy among participants. Parametric studies, before and after access to modal characteristics, showed the importance of such information for simulation accuracy, and the ability of the approach to investigate variability of dynamic responses in complement to physical tests.
Book chapter
(2026)
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Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Alfonso Prosperi, Satyadhrik Sharma, Antonio Maria D’Altri, Jan G. Rots, Francesco Messali
This paper investigates settlement-induced damages in unreinforced masonry (URM) walls using a high-fidelity block-based numerical modeling approach. The research aims to address gaps in the understanding of settlement effects on URM walls with flanges, particularly with respect to their seismic out-of-plane (OOP) behavior. A parametric study is conducted on four wall specimens with varying geometries, boundary conditions, and settlement scenarios, including symmetric and asymmetric patterns. The numerical models are developed via a high-fidelity block-based finite element method that simulates masonry using expanded blocks connected by zero-thickness joints, allowing for detailed analysis of cracking patterns and damage mechanisms. Different damage states, from no visible cracks to near-collapse conditions, are identified in the response of the walls and are used as initial conditions for subsequent monotonic static pushover OOP loading. The results highlight the significant influence of settlement-induced pre-damages on the OOP response of URM walls, with varying degrees of impact observed across different specimen configurations. The findings underscore the importance of considering even “light” settlement-induced pre-damages when assessing the seismic performance of URM structures, particularly in subsidence-prone regions. Under symmetric hogging, such pre-damage level can reduce OOP stiffness and peak strength by up to 41% and 20%, respectively. This study lays the groundwork for future investigations into the seismic behavior of pre-damaged masonry structures under dynamic loading and offers valuable insights for the development of more accurate assessment and mitigation strategies for buildings subjected to settlement deformations.
...
This paper investigates settlement-induced damages in unreinforced masonry (URM) walls using a high-fidelity block-based numerical modeling approach. The research aims to address gaps in the understanding of settlement effects on URM walls with flanges, particularly with respect to their seismic out-of-plane (OOP) behavior. A parametric study is conducted on four wall specimens with varying geometries, boundary conditions, and settlement scenarios, including symmetric and asymmetric patterns. The numerical models are developed via a high-fidelity block-based finite element method that simulates masonry using expanded blocks connected by zero-thickness joints, allowing for detailed analysis of cracking patterns and damage mechanisms. Different damage states, from no visible cracks to near-collapse conditions, are identified in the response of the walls and are used as initial conditions for subsequent monotonic static pushover OOP loading. The results highlight the significant influence of settlement-induced pre-damages on the OOP response of URM walls, with varying degrees of impact observed across different specimen configurations. The findings underscore the importance of considering even “light” settlement-induced pre-damages when assessing the seismic performance of URM structures, particularly in subsidence-prone regions. Under symmetric hogging, such pre-damage level can reduce OOP stiffness and peak strength by up to 41% and 20%, respectively. This study lays the groundwork for future investigations into the seismic behavior of pre-damaged masonry structures under dynamic loading and offers valuable insights for the development of more accurate assessment and mitigation strategies for buildings subjected to settlement deformations.
Masonry earth-retaining structures, key components of European transportation networks and urban heritage, are aging and increasingly stressed by modern traffic loads beyond their original design. This is particularly critical in Amsterdam, where over 200 km of quay walls face unknown structural conditions. Historic quay walls are typically masonry structures built before the 1920s, supported by timber floors resting on timber piles founded on the first sand layer, with variations in pile orientation, number of piles per meter, and floor material.
To address this challenge, a two-tier sub-structured finite element modelling approach has been previously developed by the authors to reduce computational effort without introducing undue conservatism. Tier 1 models the soil as linear elastic to simulate how traffic load is transferred to the quay structure, while Tier 2 employs a non-linear model for the masonry wall and timber foundation, incorporating normal stresses from Tier 1 and soil effects via boundary elements. Compared to previous works, the approach in this work introduces key refinements: phase analysis now simulates all construction stages to capture deformation evolution, soil-structure interaction is improved with more representative stiffness formulations, shear stresses from Tier 1 are transferred to Tier 2, and nonlinear timber behaviour is modelled to explicitly simulate pile failure. The need for this approach arises from field inspections conducted by divers, which revealed diffuse degradation of timber foundation piles. Traditional assessment methods based on 2D sectional analysis would overestimate the probability of collapse because they cannot capture the spatial variability of damage along the quay. To overcome this limitation, the study introduces probabilistic foundation damage scenarios that reflect realistic variability in pile properties. ...
To address this challenge, a two-tier sub-structured finite element modelling approach has been previously developed by the authors to reduce computational effort without introducing undue conservatism. Tier 1 models the soil as linear elastic to simulate how traffic load is transferred to the quay structure, while Tier 2 employs a non-linear model for the masonry wall and timber foundation, incorporating normal stresses from Tier 1 and soil effects via boundary elements. Compared to previous works, the approach in this work introduces key refinements: phase analysis now simulates all construction stages to capture deformation evolution, soil-structure interaction is improved with more representative stiffness formulations, shear stresses from Tier 1 are transferred to Tier 2, and nonlinear timber behaviour is modelled to explicitly simulate pile failure. The need for this approach arises from field inspections conducted by divers, which revealed diffuse degradation of timber foundation piles. Traditional assessment methods based on 2D sectional analysis would overestimate the probability of collapse because they cannot capture the spatial variability of damage along the quay. To overcome this limitation, the study introduces probabilistic foundation damage scenarios that reflect realistic variability in pile properties. ...
Masonry earth-retaining structures, key components of European transportation networks and urban heritage, are aging and increasingly stressed by modern traffic loads beyond their original design. This is particularly critical in Amsterdam, where over 200 km of quay walls face unknown structural conditions. Historic quay walls are typically masonry structures built before the 1920s, supported by timber floors resting on timber piles founded on the first sand layer, with variations in pile orientation, number of piles per meter, and floor material.
To address this challenge, a two-tier sub-structured finite element modelling approach has been previously developed by the authors to reduce computational effort without introducing undue conservatism. Tier 1 models the soil as linear elastic to simulate how traffic load is transferred to the quay structure, while Tier 2 employs a non-linear model for the masonry wall and timber foundation, incorporating normal stresses from Tier 1 and soil effects via boundary elements. Compared to previous works, the approach in this work introduces key refinements: phase analysis now simulates all construction stages to capture deformation evolution, soil-structure interaction is improved with more representative stiffness formulations, shear stresses from Tier 1 are transferred to Tier 2, and nonlinear timber behaviour is modelled to explicitly simulate pile failure. The need for this approach arises from field inspections conducted by divers, which revealed diffuse degradation of timber foundation piles. Traditional assessment methods based on 2D sectional analysis would overestimate the probability of collapse because they cannot capture the spatial variability of damage along the quay. To overcome this limitation, the study introduces probabilistic foundation damage scenarios that reflect realistic variability in pile properties.
To address this challenge, a two-tier sub-structured finite element modelling approach has been previously developed by the authors to reduce computational effort without introducing undue conservatism. Tier 1 models the soil as linear elastic to simulate how traffic load is transferred to the quay structure, while Tier 2 employs a non-linear model for the masonry wall and timber foundation, incorporating normal stresses from Tier 1 and soil effects via boundary elements. Compared to previous works, the approach in this work introduces key refinements: phase analysis now simulates all construction stages to capture deformation evolution, soil-structure interaction is improved with more representative stiffness formulations, shear stresses from Tier 1 are transferred to Tier 2, and nonlinear timber behaviour is modelled to explicitly simulate pile failure. The need for this approach arises from field inspections conducted by divers, which revealed diffuse degradation of timber foundation piles. Traditional assessment methods based on 2D sectional analysis would overestimate the probability of collapse because they cannot capture the spatial variability of damage along the quay. To overcome this limitation, the study introduces probabilistic foundation damage scenarios that reflect realistic variability in pile properties.
Experimental out-of-plane seismic response of URM gables
Role of roof flexibility and differential input
Journal article
(2026)
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Nicolò Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Marta Bertassi, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo Parisi, Gerard J. O’Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Low-rise masonry buildings around the world often include unreinforced masonry (URM) walls combined with pitched roofs that are supported or enclosed by masonry gables. Such buildings constitute a significant portion of the built environment in several earthquake-prone regions, affected by either natural or induced seismicity. Masonry gables in these structures have repeatedly shown high seismic vulnerability to out-of-plane excitations, as documented in post-earthquake survey studies. This paper presents the main outcomes of an experimental campaign carried out within the ERIES-SUPREME project to increase the understanding in URM gable out-of-plane seismic response. Three full-scale, densely instrumented gable specimens were tested using a dual shake-table configuration and subjected to incremental dynamic excitations up to collapse, simulating both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios. The experimental tests examined the influence of differential motions between the top and base of the gable wall, either linearly amplified or both amplified and out-of-phase, implemented by the two tables to reproduce the interaction with three distinct roof diaphragm configurations. Experimental results are discussed in terms of observed failure mechanisms, hysteretic force-displacement behaviour, as well as acceleration and displacement capacities. In particular, increasing roof diaphragm flexibility leads to earlier activation of the out-of-plane failure mechanism and to a marked reduction in collapse acceleration at the gable base, while the acceleration at ridge level provides a more consistent representation of the effective seismic demand acting on the gables.
...
Low-rise masonry buildings around the world often include unreinforced masonry (URM) walls combined with pitched roofs that are supported or enclosed by masonry gables. Such buildings constitute a significant portion of the built environment in several earthquake-prone regions, affected by either natural or induced seismicity. Masonry gables in these structures have repeatedly shown high seismic vulnerability to out-of-plane excitations, as documented in post-earthquake survey studies. This paper presents the main outcomes of an experimental campaign carried out within the ERIES-SUPREME project to increase the understanding in URM gable out-of-plane seismic response. Three full-scale, densely instrumented gable specimens were tested using a dual shake-table configuration and subjected to incremental dynamic excitations up to collapse, simulating both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios. The experimental tests examined the influence of differential motions between the top and base of the gable wall, either linearly amplified or both amplified and out-of-phase, implemented by the two tables to reproduce the interaction with three distinct roof diaphragm configurations. Experimental results are discussed in terms of observed failure mechanisms, hysteretic force-displacement behaviour, as well as acceleration and displacement capacities. In particular, increasing roof diaphragm flexibility leads to earlier activation of the out-of-plane failure mechanism and to a marked reduction in collapse acceleration at the gable base, while the acceleration at ridge level provides a more consistent representation of the effective seismic demand acting on the gables.
Journal article
(2026)
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Yopi P. Oktiovan, Francesco Messali, Bora Pulatsu, Satyadhrik Sharma, José V. Lemos, Jan G. Rots
This paper presents a cyclic joint constitutive model within a Distinct Element Method framework to simulate the in-plane response of unreinforced masonry structures. The model combines multi-surface failure criteria, including tensile cut-off, Coulomb friction, and an elliptical compression cap. It incorporates exponential softening, a unified damage scalar for stiffness degradation, and a hardening–softening law for compression. Shear-induced dilatancy is captured via an uplift-correction mechanism with an exponential dilatancy-decay law, while stiffness degradation governs energy dissipation. The model is validated at both material and structural scales. Material-level simulations of cyclic compression and shear tests show close agreement with experimental data. Structural-scale validation on full-height calcium-silicate walls under combined compression and cyclic lateral loading demonstrates the ability to reproduce rocking-dominated, shear-dominated, and hybrid failure mechanisms. The model successfully replicated global hysteretic force–drift loops, capturing stiffness decay and energy dissipation, as well as local failures like cracking, sliding, and toe crushing. The model also reproduced the drift-dependent transition from rocking to friction-controlled sliding, a key mechanism for earthquake assessment. By integrating these features into a single, efficient framework, the proposed constitutive model provides a robust tool for evaluating seismic performance and conserving heritage.
...
This paper presents a cyclic joint constitutive model within a Distinct Element Method framework to simulate the in-plane response of unreinforced masonry structures. The model combines multi-surface failure criteria, including tensile cut-off, Coulomb friction, and an elliptical compression cap. It incorporates exponential softening, a unified damage scalar for stiffness degradation, and a hardening–softening law for compression. Shear-induced dilatancy is captured via an uplift-correction mechanism with an exponential dilatancy-decay law, while stiffness degradation governs energy dissipation. The model is validated at both material and structural scales. Material-level simulations of cyclic compression and shear tests show close agreement with experimental data. Structural-scale validation on full-height calcium-silicate walls under combined compression and cyclic lateral loading demonstrates the ability to reproduce rocking-dominated, shear-dominated, and hybrid failure mechanisms. The model successfully replicated global hysteretic force–drift loops, capturing stiffness decay and energy dissipation, as well as local failures like cracking, sliding, and toe crushing. The model also reproduced the drift-dependent transition from rocking to friction-controlled sliding, a key mechanism for earthquake assessment. By integrating these features into a single, efficient framework, the proposed constitutive model provides a robust tool for evaluating seismic performance and conserving heritage.
A fast, NLTHA-based assessment method for out-of-plane capacity of URM walls
The Wandenaanpak framework for the Groningen building stock
Conference paper
(2026)
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Nicolò Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Mario de Rooij, Francesco Graziotti, Francesco Messali
Induced seismicity in the Groningen gas field has raised concerns regarding the structural safety of the local building stock, which is predominantly composed of unreinforced masonry (URM). Assessments performed according to the current Dutch guidelines (NPR 9998) have often shown insufficient out-of-plane (OOP) capacity in URM walls, which frequently governs the seismic safety check. Annex H of NPR 9998 provides a three-tier approach for OOP assessment, with increasing levels of complexity and accuracy. The first two tiers are based on nonlinear kinematic analyses (NLKA) and allow for rapid evaluation, while the third tier prescribes nonlinear time-history analyses (NLTHA) of the entire building, which provide a more detailed representation of wall response but are computationally demanding and impractical for portfolio-level screening, especially only when the local OOP capacity of walls is of concern. To circumvent this, the Wandenaanpak project developed a method that is fast, and easy to apply without being overly conservative. The method is implemented in a web-based tool that provides engineers with precomputed results for a wide range of building and wall configurations, both un-strengthened and retrofitted.
...
Induced seismicity in the Groningen gas field has raised concerns regarding the structural safety of the local building stock, which is predominantly composed of unreinforced masonry (URM). Assessments performed according to the current Dutch guidelines (NPR 9998) have often shown insufficient out-of-plane (OOP) capacity in URM walls, which frequently governs the seismic safety check. Annex H of NPR 9998 provides a three-tier approach for OOP assessment, with increasing levels of complexity and accuracy. The first two tiers are based on nonlinear kinematic analyses (NLKA) and allow for rapid evaluation, while the third tier prescribes nonlinear time-history analyses (NLTHA) of the entire building, which provide a more detailed representation of wall response but are computationally demanding and impractical for portfolio-level screening, especially only when the local OOP capacity of walls is of concern. To circumvent this, the Wandenaanpak project developed a method that is fast, and easy to apply without being overly conservative. The method is implemented in a web-based tool that provides engineers with precomputed results for a wide range of building and wall configurations, both un-strengthened and retrofitted.
Out-of-plane response of URM gable walls
From experimental testing to modeling and assessment tools
Conference paper
(2026)
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Nicolò Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Marta Bertassi, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Low-rise masonry buildings in Europe and worldwide are predominantly characterised by unreinforced masonry (URM) walls combined with pitched timber roof systems, often supported by masonry gables. These structures constitute a significant portion of the existing building stock in seismic-prone regions, including areas exposed to both natural and induced seismicity. Among their components, masonry gables are frequently identified as the most seismically vulnerable elements with respect to out-of-plane (OOP) response. Post-earthquake damage surveys worldwide provide extensive evidence of this vulnerability, which arises from their pronounced slenderness, weak connections to roof structures, minimal vertical overburden, and their position at the building apex. In addition, the interaction between gable walls and flexible roof diaphragms can further increase seismic vulnerability. Rather than providing effective restraint, timber roof systems may amplify seismic motion and transfer increased OOP demands to the gables. Despite the recurrent observation of gable failures in past earthquakes, dedicated experimental investigations on their seismic response remain limited in the literature. Most available insights are derived from tests on masonry walls with rectangular geometries, leaving a substantial gap in the understanding of the dynamic behaviour of triangular gable walls and their interaction with roof structures under seismic loading. To address this gap, this study presents an experimental campaign on the dynamic OOP seismic response of full-scale URM gable walls tested up to collapse.
...
Low-rise masonry buildings in Europe and worldwide are predominantly characterised by unreinforced masonry (URM) walls combined with pitched timber roof systems, often supported by masonry gables. These structures constitute a significant portion of the existing building stock in seismic-prone regions, including areas exposed to both natural and induced seismicity. Among their components, masonry gables are frequently identified as the most seismically vulnerable elements with respect to out-of-plane (OOP) response. Post-earthquake damage surveys worldwide provide extensive evidence of this vulnerability, which arises from their pronounced slenderness, weak connections to roof structures, minimal vertical overburden, and their position at the building apex. In addition, the interaction between gable walls and flexible roof diaphragms can further increase seismic vulnerability. Rather than providing effective restraint, timber roof systems may amplify seismic motion and transfer increased OOP demands to the gables. Despite the recurrent observation of gable failures in past earthquakes, dedicated experimental investigations on their seismic response remain limited in the literature. Most available insights are derived from tests on masonry walls with rectangular geometries, leaving a substantial gap in the understanding of the dynamic behaviour of triangular gable walls and their interaction with roof structures under seismic loading. To address this gap, this study presents an experimental campaign on the dynamic OOP seismic response of full-scale URM gable walls tested up to collapse.
Journal article
(2026)
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Hao Kuai, Valentina Macchiarulo, Satyadhrik Sharma, Pantelis Karamitopoulos, Francesco Messali, Alice Cicirello, Giorgia Giardina
Growing incidents of structural damage and failures underscore the urgent need for more advanced Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) solutions. While Multi-Temporal Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (MT-InSAR) has revolutionised SHM by enabling automated, long-term, and large-scale displacement monitoring of structures using Persistent Scatterers (PSs), its applicability is often constrained by the unpredictable spatial distribution of PSs. Conventional suitability assessments that rely primarily on PS density fail to account for the underlying structural behaviours, limiting their reliability.
This paper introduces a novel structural-based inverse approach that uniquely integrates MT-InSAR characteristics with structural response modelling to overcome these limitations. Unlike existing approaches, the method explicitly evaluates whether observed surface displacements adequately represent a target damage mechanism by comparing outputs from a pseudo sensor with those from a virtual MT-InSAR sensor. If this condition is satisfied, it then determines the minimum required number and optimal spatial arrangement of ideal PSs using modified pivoted QR factorisation, where satellite-induced positional uncertainties are rigorously modelled through Radial Basis Function kernels.
The proposed method was validated on a quay wall in Amsterdam using Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations of three distinct damage mechanisms. Results demonstrate its unique capability to quantitatively assess displacement representativeness and to pinpoint ideal PSs for robust monitoring. Leveraging these insights, the method was further applied to evaluate MT-InSAR monitoring feasibility across Amsterdam’s historic centre, successfully identifying quay wall segments amenable to reliable observation. This work represents a significant advancement in MT-InSAR-based SHM, providing a more targeted and structurally informed approach for real-world infrastructure monitoring. ...
This paper introduces a novel structural-based inverse approach that uniquely integrates MT-InSAR characteristics with structural response modelling to overcome these limitations. Unlike existing approaches, the method explicitly evaluates whether observed surface displacements adequately represent a target damage mechanism by comparing outputs from a pseudo sensor with those from a virtual MT-InSAR sensor. If this condition is satisfied, it then determines the minimum required number and optimal spatial arrangement of ideal PSs using modified pivoted QR factorisation, where satellite-induced positional uncertainties are rigorously modelled through Radial Basis Function kernels.
The proposed method was validated on a quay wall in Amsterdam using Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations of three distinct damage mechanisms. Results demonstrate its unique capability to quantitatively assess displacement representativeness and to pinpoint ideal PSs for robust monitoring. Leveraging these insights, the method was further applied to evaluate MT-InSAR monitoring feasibility across Amsterdam’s historic centre, successfully identifying quay wall segments amenable to reliable observation. This work represents a significant advancement in MT-InSAR-based SHM, providing a more targeted and structurally informed approach for real-world infrastructure monitoring. ...
Growing incidents of structural damage and failures underscore the urgent need for more advanced Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) solutions. While Multi-Temporal Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (MT-InSAR) has revolutionised SHM by enabling automated, long-term, and large-scale displacement monitoring of structures using Persistent Scatterers (PSs), its applicability is often constrained by the unpredictable spatial distribution of PSs. Conventional suitability assessments that rely primarily on PS density fail to account for the underlying structural behaviours, limiting their reliability.
This paper introduces a novel structural-based inverse approach that uniquely integrates MT-InSAR characteristics with structural response modelling to overcome these limitations. Unlike existing approaches, the method explicitly evaluates whether observed surface displacements adequately represent a target damage mechanism by comparing outputs from a pseudo sensor with those from a virtual MT-InSAR sensor. If this condition is satisfied, it then determines the minimum required number and optimal spatial arrangement of ideal PSs using modified pivoted QR factorisation, where satellite-induced positional uncertainties are rigorously modelled through Radial Basis Function kernels.
The proposed method was validated on a quay wall in Amsterdam using Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations of three distinct damage mechanisms. Results demonstrate its unique capability to quantitatively assess displacement representativeness and to pinpoint ideal PSs for robust monitoring. Leveraging these insights, the method was further applied to evaluate MT-InSAR monitoring feasibility across Amsterdam’s historic centre, successfully identifying quay wall segments amenable to reliable observation. This work represents a significant advancement in MT-InSAR-based SHM, providing a more targeted and structurally informed approach for real-world infrastructure monitoring.
This paper introduces a novel structural-based inverse approach that uniquely integrates MT-InSAR characteristics with structural response modelling to overcome these limitations. Unlike existing approaches, the method explicitly evaluates whether observed surface displacements adequately represent a target damage mechanism by comparing outputs from a pseudo sensor with those from a virtual MT-InSAR sensor. If this condition is satisfied, it then determines the minimum required number and optimal spatial arrangement of ideal PSs using modified pivoted QR factorisation, where satellite-induced positional uncertainties are rigorously modelled through Radial Basis Function kernels.
The proposed method was validated on a quay wall in Amsterdam using Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations of three distinct damage mechanisms. Results demonstrate its unique capability to quantitatively assess displacement representativeness and to pinpoint ideal PSs for robust monitoring. Leveraging these insights, the method was further applied to evaluate MT-InSAR monitoring feasibility across Amsterdam’s historic centre, successfully identifying quay wall segments amenable to reliable observation. This work represents a significant advancement in MT-InSAR-based SHM, providing a more targeted and structurally informed approach for real-world infrastructure monitoring.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Nicolò Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Marta Bertassi, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo Parisi, Gerard J. O’Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide commonly feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, often paired with various pitched roof configurations supported or finished by masonry gables. These buildings constitute a significant portion of the building stock in several seismic-prone regions, including areas vulnerable to both natural and induced seismicity. Masonry gables in such buildings are frequently associated with high seismic vulnerability, as evidenced by damage observed after past earthquakes. This paper presents key results from an experimental campaign aimed at enhancing the understanding of the seismic out-of-plane response of masonry gables. Incremental full-scale shake-table tests were performed on three densely instrumented URM gables until the complete collapse. Within this context, the study systematically investigated the effects of motions applied at the top of the gable, both being linearly amplified as well as amplified and out-of-phase, with respect to the motion applied at the base of the gable. Such differential motions simulate the effect of the gable interaction with three different roof configurations, each exerting a different filtering effect on the seismic motion. The response of the gables to both induced and tectonic earthquakes was considered. The experimental findings are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behaviour, and acceleration and displacement capacities. All generated experimental data, along with the associated instrumentation schemes, are openly available for download at https://doi.org/10.60756/euc-1avy7q49.
...
Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide commonly feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, often paired with various pitched roof configurations supported or finished by masonry gables. These buildings constitute a significant portion of the building stock in several seismic-prone regions, including areas vulnerable to both natural and induced seismicity. Masonry gables in such buildings are frequently associated with high seismic vulnerability, as evidenced by damage observed after past earthquakes. This paper presents key results from an experimental campaign aimed at enhancing the understanding of the seismic out-of-plane response of masonry gables. Incremental full-scale shake-table tests were performed on three densely instrumented URM gables until the complete collapse. Within this context, the study systematically investigated the effects of motions applied at the top of the gable, both being linearly amplified as well as amplified and out-of-phase, with respect to the motion applied at the base of the gable. Such differential motions simulate the effect of the gable interaction with three different roof configurations, each exerting a different filtering effect on the seismic motion. The response of the gables to both induced and tectonic earthquakes was considered. The experimental findings are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behaviour, and acceleration and displacement capacities. All generated experimental data, along with the associated instrumentation schemes, are openly available for download at https://doi.org/10.60756/euc-1avy7q49.
Masonry earth-retaining structures are vital components of historic cities. Originally designed as gravity walls, these structures are now frequently subjected to traffic loads from vehicles travelling on carriageways built over their backfill. Comprehensive assessments require detailed analysis of the interaction between the masonry and the surrounding soil, typically achieved through three-dimensional (3D) simulations. However, fully modelling the soil in 3D imposes significant computational demands. This study investigates the relevance of explicitly modelling the surrounding soil and evaluates the accuracy of a tiered approach, proposed to mitigate the associated computational burden. As a numerical benchmark, a fully coupled model is developed, explicitly representing both the retaining structure and the soil to capture load redistribution with high fidelity. In parallel, a tiered method is implemented by dividing the system into two sub-systems: the first models the soil as a linear elastic medium to analyse traffic load propagation and derive loading conditions; the second focuses on the retaining structure, using a non-linear model with calibrated boundary interface elements to simulate soil–structure interaction. Comparative analyses demonstrate that the tiered method is able to closely approximate the performance of the coupled model while greatly reducing computational effort. These findings highlight the potential of the tiered modelling approach as a reliable and efficient alternative for the structural assessment of masonry earth-retaining structures.
...
Masonry earth-retaining structures are vital components of historic cities. Originally designed as gravity walls, these structures are now frequently subjected to traffic loads from vehicles travelling on carriageways built over their backfill. Comprehensive assessments require detailed analysis of the interaction between the masonry and the surrounding soil, typically achieved through three-dimensional (3D) simulations. However, fully modelling the soil in 3D imposes significant computational demands. This study investigates the relevance of explicitly modelling the surrounding soil and evaluates the accuracy of a tiered approach, proposed to mitigate the associated computational burden. As a numerical benchmark, a fully coupled model is developed, explicitly representing both the retaining structure and the soil to capture load redistribution with high fidelity. In parallel, a tiered method is implemented by dividing the system into two sub-systems: the first models the soil as a linear elastic medium to analyse traffic load propagation and derive loading conditions; the second focuses on the retaining structure, using a non-linear model with calibrated boundary interface elements to simulate soil–structure interaction. Comparative analyses demonstrate that the tiered method is able to closely approximate the performance of the coupled model while greatly reducing computational effort. These findings highlight the potential of the tiered modelling approach as a reliable and efficient alternative for the structural assessment of masonry earth-retaining structures.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Marta Bertassi, Nicolo Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo Parisi, Gerard O'Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide often feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls paired with pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes indicate that these components are vulnerable to out-of-plane seismic loads. This study presents key findings from the experimental campaign of the ERIES SUPREME project, which aims to advance understanding of the out-of-plane seismic response of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests simulating induced and tectonic seismicity scenarios were conducted on three full-scale URM gables, using two shake tables. Differential motions applied to the top and bottom tables allowed the simulation of gable interaction with distinctly different roof configurations. The experimental results are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behavior, and acceleration and displacement capacities. These findings will contribute to refining and calibrating existing numerical models.
...
Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide often feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls paired with pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes indicate that these components are vulnerable to out-of-plane seismic loads. This study presents key findings from the experimental campaign of the ERIES SUPREME project, which aims to advance understanding of the out-of-plane seismic response of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests simulating induced and tectonic seismicity scenarios were conducted on three full-scale URM gables, using two shake tables. Differential motions applied to the top and bottom tables allowed the simulation of gable interaction with distinctly different roof configurations. The experimental results are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behavior, and acceleration and displacement capacities. These findings will contribute to refining and calibrating existing numerical models.
Salt crystallisation and weathering in masonry retaining walls
A multiphase modelling approach
Journal article
(2025)
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Satyadhrik Sharma, Rita Esposito, Antonio Maria D'Altri, Giovanni Castellazzi
This study presents a numerical investigation into the effects of salt crystallisation-induced weathering on masonry earth-retaining walls, with a specific focus on historic quay walls in Amsterdam. A multiphase modelling strategy is adopted to simulate moisture and salt transport, capturing the impact of environmental exposure on these ageing structures. The numerical model is first applied with masonry assumed as a homogeneous continuum and is subsequently refined to incorporate masonry texture. The influence of boundary conditions, multiple weathering cycles, and long-term humidity variations is examined to assess salt accumulation patterns. Results indicate that evaporation pathways significantly influence crystallisation depth, while explicitly modelling masonry texture leads to greater salt accumulation. Furthermore, an analytical estimation of the effective Young's modulus suggests that salt deposition within pores may contribute to through-thickness stiffness variations observed in experimental studies on samples collected from a multi-wythe masonry bridge pillar, with masonry type and exposure conditions comparable to those of Amsterdam's quay walls. These findings provide new insights into the deterioration mechanisms of historic quay walls and highlight the importance of considering environmental effects in their structural assessment.
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This study presents a numerical investigation into the effects of salt crystallisation-induced weathering on masonry earth-retaining walls, with a specific focus on historic quay walls in Amsterdam. A multiphase modelling strategy is adopted to simulate moisture and salt transport, capturing the impact of environmental exposure on these ageing structures. The numerical model is first applied with masonry assumed as a homogeneous continuum and is subsequently refined to incorporate masonry texture. The influence of boundary conditions, multiple weathering cycles, and long-term humidity variations is examined to assess salt accumulation patterns. Results indicate that evaporation pathways significantly influence crystallisation depth, while explicitly modelling masonry texture leads to greater salt accumulation. Furthermore, an analytical estimation of the effective Young's modulus suggests that salt deposition within pores may contribute to through-thickness stiffness variations observed in experimental studies on samples collected from a multi-wythe masonry bridge pillar, with masonry type and exposure conditions comparable to those of Amsterdam's quay walls. These findings provide new insights into the deterioration mechanisms of historic quay walls and highlight the importance of considering environmental effects in their structural assessment.
Journal article
(2025)
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Satyadhrik Sharma, Nicolò Damiani, Marta Bertassi, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo Parisi, Gerard J. O’Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
This article presents a dataset from an experimental campaign investigating the out-of-plane (OOP) seismic response of unreinforced masonry (URM) gables in existing buildings. Addressing a critical gap in published research, the dataset provides novel experimental data on the incremental dynamic OOP behavior of three URM gables tested under seismic loading until full collapse. All three gables were nominally identical but differed in their interaction with the supporting roof structure. This interaction was experimentally reproduced by imposing differential motions at the top of the gables, which were either linearly amplified or both amplified and phase-shifted relative to the motion at the base. This approach ensured idealized and numerically replicable boundary conditions, making the dataset an ideal benchmark for refining existing and developing new modeling approaches for URM structures. The dataset includes measured and calculated acceleration, displacement, and force time histories. Beyond supporting the validation and development of numerical models, it can also contribute to improving guidelines for the out-of-plane seismic assessment of URM gables and is openly available for further research and engineering applications.
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This article presents a dataset from an experimental campaign investigating the out-of-plane (OOP) seismic response of unreinforced masonry (URM) gables in existing buildings. Addressing a critical gap in published research, the dataset provides novel experimental data on the incremental dynamic OOP behavior of three URM gables tested under seismic loading until full collapse. All three gables were nominally identical but differed in their interaction with the supporting roof structure. This interaction was experimentally reproduced by imposing differential motions at the top of the gables, which were either linearly amplified or both amplified and phase-shifted relative to the motion at the base. This approach ensured idealized and numerically replicable boundary conditions, making the dataset an ideal benchmark for refining existing and developing new modeling approaches for URM structures. The dataset includes measured and calculated acceleration, displacement, and force time histories. Beyond supporting the validation and development of numerical models, it can also contribute to improving guidelines for the out-of-plane seismic assessment of URM gables and is openly available for further research and engineering applications.
Masonry quay walls are vital infrastructure in many historic cities, serving both functional and historical purposes. Originally designed as gravity retaining walls, they now face increased vehicle loads and widespread material degradation, particularly in timber foundations. Traditional assessment methods are often overly conservative, lacking standard procedures for multi-wythe masonry characterisation.With over 200 km of quay walls in Amsterdamrequiring renovation, there is an urgent need for practical, reliable assessment methods. This paper provides an overview of recent research conducted at TU Delft with focus on the response of masonry superstructure, presenting and discussing key advancements in the development of high-fidelity static and dynamic finite element models and minor-destructive testing for masonry mechanical property characterisation.
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Masonry quay walls are vital infrastructure in many historic cities, serving both functional and historical purposes. Originally designed as gravity retaining walls, they now face increased vehicle loads and widespread material degradation, particularly in timber foundations. Traditional assessment methods are often overly conservative, lacking standard procedures for multi-wythe masonry characterisation.With over 200 km of quay walls in Amsterdamrequiring renovation, there is an urgent need for practical, reliable assessment methods. This paper provides an overview of recent research conducted at TU Delft with focus on the response of masonry superstructure, presenting and discussing key advancements in the development of high-fidelity static and dynamic finite element models and minor-destructive testing for masonry mechanical property characterisation.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Nicolò Damiani, Marta Bertassi, Satyadhrik Sharma, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo-Parisi, Gerard J. O’Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Low-rise masonry buildings worldwide frequently feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls coupled with various pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes have highlighted the vulnerability of these components to out-of-plane seismic loads due to their high slenderness, insufficient roof connections, and exposure to amplified accelerations while being subjected to minimal overburden due to their location at the upper part of buildings. This study presents key insights from the experimental campaign of the ERIES-SUPREME project, aimed at enhancing the understanding of the out-of-plane seismic behavior of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests were performed on three full-scale URM gables, simulating both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios until collapse, using two shake tables. Differential motions at the top and bottom tables reproduced the interaction of the gables with three different roof diaphragm configurations, each introducing a unique filtering effect on the seismic input. The outcomes of the experiments can be used for refining existing numerical modelling strategies as well as contribute to developing improved tools for the seismic assessment of URM gables.
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Low-rise masonry buildings worldwide frequently feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls coupled with various pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes have highlighted the vulnerability of these components to out-of-plane seismic loads due to their high slenderness, insufficient roof connections, and exposure to amplified accelerations while being subjected to minimal overburden due to their location at the upper part of buildings. This study presents key insights from the experimental campaign of the ERIES-SUPREME project, aimed at enhancing the understanding of the out-of-plane seismic behavior of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests were performed on three full-scale URM gables, simulating both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios until collapse, using two shake tables. Differential motions at the top and bottom tables reproduced the interaction of the gables with three different roof diaphragm configurations, each introducing a unique filtering effect on the seismic input. The outcomes of the experiments can be used for refining existing numerical modelling strategies as well as contribute to developing improved tools for the seismic assessment of URM gables.
Journal article
(2025)
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Michele Mirra, Nicolò Damiani, Satyadhrik Sharma, Francesco Graziotti, Francesco Messali
Unreinforced masonry gables are widely present in low-rise existing buildings and are particularly vulnerable to seismic events, as demonstrated by the several observed out-of-plane collapses of these structural elements during earthquakes. Since the structural behaviour of gable walls has been scarcely investigated in the literature, a large-scale testing programme (ERIES-SUPREME) has been initiated by research institutions in the Netherlands (TU Delft, TNO) and Italy (EUCENTRE, University of Pavia, IUSS Pavia), to dynamically characterise the gable out-of-plane seismic response. Shake-table tests on full-scale masonry gables are being conducted at the 9D LAB facility in EUCENTRE (Pavia, Italy), incorporating the effects of different ground motions, structures and roof stiffnesses. This facility features both a top and a bottom shake table, allowing for separate input motions: therefore, the effect of the roof dynamic behaviour can be accounted for by applying differential signals. This work presents the procedure used to define such input motions. While for tectonic signals direct earthquake recordings at floor level are accessible from existing monitored masonry buildings in Italy, for induced signals in the Netherlands such data are not available. Thus, in the latter case, numerical analyses are conducted considering a reference unreinforced masonry building subjected to induced earthquakes, with three roof configurations representing flexible, semi-flexible, and stiff diaphragms. Based on the obtained outcomes, input signals are derived for both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios, leading to the final definition of the testing protocol for the ERIES-SUPREME experimental campaign. The findings of this study are also broadly applicable for the derivation of input motions in the planning of benchmark experiments where parts of the structural system cannot be explicitly reproduced due to testing constraints.
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Unreinforced masonry gables are widely present in low-rise existing buildings and are particularly vulnerable to seismic events, as demonstrated by the several observed out-of-plane collapses of these structural elements during earthquakes. Since the structural behaviour of gable walls has been scarcely investigated in the literature, a large-scale testing programme (ERIES-SUPREME) has been initiated by research institutions in the Netherlands (TU Delft, TNO) and Italy (EUCENTRE, University of Pavia, IUSS Pavia), to dynamically characterise the gable out-of-plane seismic response. Shake-table tests on full-scale masonry gables are being conducted at the 9D LAB facility in EUCENTRE (Pavia, Italy), incorporating the effects of different ground motions, structures and roof stiffnesses. This facility features both a top and a bottom shake table, allowing for separate input motions: therefore, the effect of the roof dynamic behaviour can be accounted for by applying differential signals. This work presents the procedure used to define such input motions. While for tectonic signals direct earthquake recordings at floor level are accessible from existing monitored masonry buildings in Italy, for induced signals in the Netherlands such data are not available. Thus, in the latter case, numerical analyses are conducted considering a reference unreinforced masonry building subjected to induced earthquakes, with three roof configurations representing flexible, semi-flexible, and stiff diaphragms. Based on the obtained outcomes, input signals are derived for both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios, leading to the final definition of the testing protocol for the ERIES-SUPREME experimental campaign. The findings of this study are also broadly applicable for the derivation of input motions in the planning of benchmark experiments where parts of the structural system cannot be explicitly reproduced due to testing constraints.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Satyadhrik Sharma, Nicolò Damiani, Marta Bertassi, Marco Smerilli, Michele Mirra, Igor Lanese, Elisa Rizzo Parisi, Gerard J. O'Reilly, Francesco Messali, Francesco Graziotti
Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide commonly feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, often paired with various pitched roof configurations supported or finished by masonry gables. These buildings constitute a significant portion of the building stock in several seismic-prone regions, including areas vulnerable to both natural and induced seismicity. Masonry gables in such buildings are frequently associated with high seismic vulnerability, as evidenced by damage observed after past earthquakes. This paper presents key results from an experimental campaign aimed at enhancing the understanding of the seismic out-of-plane response of masonry gables. Incremental full-scale shake-table tests were performed on three densely instrumented URM gables until complete collapse. Within this context, the study systematically investigated the effects of motions applied at the top of the gable, both being linearly amplified as well as amplified and out-of-phase, with respect to the motion applied at the base of the gable. Such differential motions simulate the effect of the gable interaction with three different roof configurations, each exerting a different filtering effect on the seismic motion. The response of the gables to both induced and tectonic earthquakes was considered. All generated experimental data are available for download at https://doi.org/10.60756/euc-1avy7q49.
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Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide commonly feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, often paired with various pitched roof configurations supported or finished by masonry gables. These buildings constitute a significant portion of the building stock in several seismic-prone regions, including areas vulnerable to both natural and induced seismicity. Masonry gables in such buildings are frequently associated with high seismic vulnerability, as evidenced by damage observed after past earthquakes. This paper presents key results from an experimental campaign aimed at enhancing the understanding of the seismic out-of-plane response of masonry gables. Incremental full-scale shake-table tests were performed on three densely instrumented URM gables until complete collapse. Within this context, the study systematically investigated the effects of motions applied at the top of the gable, both being linearly amplified as well as amplified and out-of-phase, with respect to the motion applied at the base of the gable. Such differential motions simulate the effect of the gable interaction with three different roof configurations, each exerting a different filtering effect on the seismic motion. The response of the gables to both induced and tectonic earthquakes was considered. All generated experimental data are available for download at https://doi.org/10.60756/euc-1avy7q49.
Journal article
(2025)
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Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Satyadhrik Sharma, Antonio Maria D'Altri, Paulo B. Lourenço, Jan G. Rots, Francesco Messali
This study deals with the high-fidelity block-based finite element simulation of dynamic out-of-plane (OOP) responses of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, explicitly focusing on two-way bending behaviors under seismic loads, which is a common critical failure mode in real-world masonry structures. While experimental shake-table tests provide valuable insights into these behaviors, their high costs, complexity, and limited scalability highlight the need for advanced numerical modeling approaches. A state-of-the-art block-based finite element modeling strategy that conceives masonry as an assemblage of 3D damaging blocks interacting via contact-based cohesive-frictional zero-thickness interfaces, previously proposed for simulating cyclic quasi-static and dynamic one-way bending tests, is here extended for the first time to the simulation of incremental dynamic shake-table tests on OOP two-way spanning URM full-scale walls, subjected to a sequence of dynamic loads. The numerical models track the reference experimental behaviors with high accuracy in terms of collapse onset, failure mechanism, experienced acceleration and displacements, and hysteretic response. The effects of variations in mechanical properties, boundary conditions, and damping on the dynamic response are explored in a sensitivity study. The results indicate that slight changes in these parameters can lead to considerable differences in outcomes. This highlights the chaotic nature of the dynamic response of masonry walls, especially in near-collapse conditions, which makes probabilistic approaches more suitable for predicting masonry OOP dynamics. The proposed numerical methodology appears compatible with statistical frameworks, given the limited costs with respect to experimental tests, and it extends knowledge beyond physical experiments.
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This study deals with the high-fidelity block-based finite element simulation of dynamic out-of-plane (OOP) responses of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, explicitly focusing on two-way bending behaviors under seismic loads, which is a common critical failure mode in real-world masonry structures. While experimental shake-table tests provide valuable insights into these behaviors, their high costs, complexity, and limited scalability highlight the need for advanced numerical modeling approaches. A state-of-the-art block-based finite element modeling strategy that conceives masonry as an assemblage of 3D damaging blocks interacting via contact-based cohesive-frictional zero-thickness interfaces, previously proposed for simulating cyclic quasi-static and dynamic one-way bending tests, is here extended for the first time to the simulation of incremental dynamic shake-table tests on OOP two-way spanning URM full-scale walls, subjected to a sequence of dynamic loads. The numerical models track the reference experimental behaviors with high accuracy in terms of collapse onset, failure mechanism, experienced acceleration and displacements, and hysteretic response. The effects of variations in mechanical properties, boundary conditions, and damping on the dynamic response are explored in a sensitivity study. The results indicate that slight changes in these parameters can lead to considerable differences in outcomes. This highlights the chaotic nature of the dynamic response of masonry walls, especially in near-collapse conditions, which makes probabilistic approaches more suitable for predicting masonry OOP dynamics. The proposed numerical methodology appears compatible with statistical frameworks, given the limited costs with respect to experimental tests, and it extends knowledge beyond physical experiments.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Ziwei Dai, Satyadhrik Sharma, Nicolò Damiani, Francesco Graziotti, Francesco Messali
Unreinforced masonry (URM) gables, common in low-rise buildings with pitched roofs, exhibit notable vulnerability under seismic excitation, as observed in regions like Groningen, Netherlands, experiencing induced seismicity. This study introduces a computationally efficient three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) model to accurately predict the out-of-plane (OOP) dynamic response of URM gables under seismic loading. The model integrates global rigid-body motions induced by roof flexibility and local masonry deflections. Parameter calibration for capturing the measured response from novel shake table experiments on URM gables is conducted by employing a novel two-stage strategy based on Modified Nelder-Mead (MNM) optimization approach, enabling accurate representation of elastic and nonlinear behaviors under varied roof stiffness scenarios. Validation against full-scale incremental dynamic tests demonstrates excellent agreement in predicting the onset and progression of cracking, rocking, frictional sliding, and internal masonry degradation as well as full collapse. This simplified yet robust modeling approach offers significant potential for rapid seismic vulnerability assessment of URM structures.
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Unreinforced masonry (URM) gables, common in low-rise buildings with pitched roofs, exhibit notable vulnerability under seismic excitation, as observed in regions like Groningen, Netherlands, experiencing induced seismicity. This study introduces a computationally efficient three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) model to accurately predict the out-of-plane (OOP) dynamic response of URM gables under seismic loading. The model integrates global rigid-body motions induced by roof flexibility and local masonry deflections. Parameter calibration for capturing the measured response from novel shake table experiments on URM gables is conducted by employing a novel two-stage strategy based on Modified Nelder-Mead (MNM) optimization approach, enabling accurate representation of elastic and nonlinear behaviors under varied roof stiffness scenarios. Validation against full-scale incremental dynamic tests demonstrates excellent agreement in predicting the onset and progression of cracking, rocking, frictional sliding, and internal masonry degradation as well as full collapse. This simplified yet robust modeling approach offers significant potential for rapid seismic vulnerability assessment of URM structures.
Historical quay walls, constructed in unreinforced masonry, play a crucial role in the infrastructure of many Dutch cities. Designed originally as gravity retaining walls, these structures are increasingly subjected to traffic loads due to vehicles operating on roads built on their backfill. This study conducts a preliminary numerical evaluation of a strengthening technique aimed at prolonging the service life of such quay walls, focusing on a specific case in Amsterdam. The strengthening method involves drilling tubular steel piles through the existing masonry to anchor into a stable soil layer, with the piles bonded to the masonry using low-shrinkage casting concrete. The assessment models the interaction between the strengthening technique and the existing quay structures, including a detailed simulation of the installation process, identified as critical for proper simulation of the structural behaviour. While the technique significantly enhances the quay's force capacity, an improvement in displacement capacity was not evident, highlighting the need for further investigation.
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Historical quay walls, constructed in unreinforced masonry, play a crucial role in the infrastructure of many Dutch cities. Designed originally as gravity retaining walls, these structures are increasingly subjected to traffic loads due to vehicles operating on roads built on their backfill. This study conducts a preliminary numerical evaluation of a strengthening technique aimed at prolonging the service life of such quay walls, focusing on a specific case in Amsterdam. The strengthening method involves drilling tubular steel piles through the existing masonry to anchor into a stable soil layer, with the piles bonded to the masonry using low-shrinkage casting concrete. The assessment models the interaction between the strengthening technique and the existing quay structures, including a detailed simulation of the installation process, identified as critical for proper simulation of the structural behaviour. While the technique significantly enhances the quay's force capacity, an improvement in displacement capacity was not evident, highlighting the need for further investigation.