Induced seismicity in Groningen, Netherlands, has necessitated the assessment of a building stock not originally designed for seismic hazards. With no prior national standards for seismic assessment, early evaluations relied on Eurocode EN 1998–3, which was not specifically suited for the region’s shallow earthquakes and its unique building stock, mostly composed of low-rise unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings with cavity walls, slender piers, and large openings. Since 2015, the Dutch NPR 9998 guidelines have introduced various assessment methods, but inconsistencies in assessment outcomes remain a challenge. A full-scale URM house test at TU Delft, linked to a blind prediction contest, highlighted significant variability in key response parameters, such as base shear and displacement capacity. This paper discusses three initiatives aimed at improving consistency in seismic assessment. First, cross-comparison exercises evaluated different nonlinear dynamic and static procedures on reference buildings. Second, a semi-probabilistic typology-based approach was developed for global seismic assessment, with a similar method under development for local out-of-plane URM wall assessments. Third, an experimental campaign on URM gable wall failures, combined with a blind prediction contest, seeks to enhance consistency in computational approaches for this under-researched typology. While progress has been made in improving the consistency of assessments, challenges remain, particularly in accounting for local failure mechanisms. The semi-probabilistic approach offers a promising path forward, but further refinements are needed for broader application beyond the Dutch context.

The out-of-plane (OOP) dynamic behavior of unreinforced masonry (URM) gable walls was investigated in this paper using a high-fidelity block-based numerical modeling approach, building on the participation of the authors in the ERIES SUPREME blind prediction competition. In this paper, the numerical models developed for the competition were updated based on the experimental data published after the competition to further improve accuracy. The improvement was obtained by slight recalibration of mortar joint tensile strength and friction between the walls and the loading set-up. The updated models were also adopted to simulate a third wall originally excluded from the competition. The models were then used to complement the experimental campaign with additional configurations in a parametric study. Specifically, the influence of roof-wall connections and pre-existing damage on the performance of the gable walls were examined to address gaps identified in both experimental and numerical studies of the past. Stronger roof-wall connections, while improving global stability and increasing wall OOP strength in the static regime by up to 140%, led to collapse at dynamic loading intensities reduced by an average of 28% and up to a maximum of 57%. This early collapse resulted from the transfer of larger dynamic demands to the gable walls. This higher demand transfer also caused earlier damage initiation and considerable changes in collapse mechanisms, effects not captured by static analysis, highlighting the uncertainties governing dynamic behavior and the need for robust methodologies to address them. Finally, light pre-damage, modelled in this study as a crack at the base of the walls, had only a minor influence on failure mechanisms and OOP resistance.

This paper investigates settlement-induced damages in unreinforced masonry (URM) walls using a high-fidelity block-based numerical modeling approach. The research aims to address gaps in the understanding of settlement effects on URM walls with flanges, particularly with respect to their seismic out-of-plane (OOP) behavior. A parametric study is conducted on four wall specimens with varying geometries, boundary conditions, and settlement scenarios, including symmetric and asymmetric patterns. The numerical models are developed via a high-fidelity block-based finite element method that simulates masonry using expanded blocks connected by zero-thickness joints, allowing for detailed analysis of cracking patterns and damage mechanisms. Different damage states, from no visible cracks to near-collapse conditions, are identified in the response of the walls and are used as initial conditions for subsequent monotonic static pushover OOP loading. The results highlight the significant influence of settlement-induced pre-damages on the OOP response of URM walls, with varying degrees of impact observed across different specimen configurations. The findings underscore the importance of considering even “light” settlement-induced pre-damages when assessing the seismic performance of URM structures, particularly in subsidence-prone regions. Under symmetric hogging, such pre-damage level can reduce OOP stiffness and peak strength by up to 41% and 20%, respectively. This study lays the groundwork for future investigations into the seismic behavior of pre-damaged masonry structures under dynamic loading and offers valuable insights for the development of more accurate assessment and mitigation strategies for buildings subjected to settlement deformations.

This paper investigates the response of one-way spanning unreinforced masonry (URM) walls first statically tilted in the in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) directions and then subjected to seismic OOP loading, a subject largely overlooked in the literature. The study is motivated by this knowledge gap and its particular relevance to Netherlands, where ground settlement often leads to visible tilting in buildings, yet sufficient evidence for if and how such tilting should be explicitly considered in design and assessment does not exist. The numerical modeling approach previously proposed by the authors, validated against complex experimental data, is employed in a comprehensive parametric study to provide preliminary insights into the seismic response of tilted walls. The model represents URM unit-by-unit using nonlinear 3D solid expanded blocks and cohesive-frictional zero-thickness joints. Two wall specimens, one short and one long, are subjected to one level of IP base tilting and two levels of OOP base tilting. Static and dynamic OOP loading is then applied while maintaining the prescribed tilt. Under static OOP loading, three levels of vertical pre-compression are considered, representing conditions in low-rise residential buildings. For dynamic OOP analyses, a multi-step loading sequence with varying levels of overburden is used. The results show negligible sensitivity to IP tilting (even up to 4°). While the specimens exhibit slightly greater sensitivity to OOP tilting, primarily due to reduced vertical confinement and increased uplift, responses remain largely stable even with large OOP drift (up to 22% of wall thickness). Aside from the aforementioned findings, this study, being the first one in the literature studying load-bearing tilted walls, highlights key limitations which may have affected the outcomes and emphasizes the need for further research to better understand the behavior of tilted URM walls.

This paper presents a numerical investigation on the effects of settlement-induced pre-damage on the seismic out-of-plane (OOP) response of two-way spanning non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, investigating also the suitability of static analysis procedures for simulating the dynamic OOP response of pre-damaged walls. For this purpose, the finite-element block-based modeling approach developed and validated by the authors in previous works is employed. URM walls with various geometries and boundary conditions are simulated to investigate the effects of openings and wall-to-diaphragm connections on pre-damage effects. Each specimen is subjected to various settlement profiles, and different levels of obtained settlement-induced damage states are used as initial conditions for OOP analyses. Static and dynamic OOP simulations, the latter considering both induced and tectonic seismicity, and modal analyses are performed. The outputs show that settlement effects on the OOP response emerged as early as the light pre-damage state. Sagging, previously considered in literature less damaging than hogging, caused the greatest OOP stiffness and strength reduction, up to 92% and 80%, respectively. Hogging led to a 60% stiffness and 30% strength drop, particularly in walls with openings. Induced seismicity did not lead to collapse. Static analyses accurately estimated OOP strength and failure mechanisms.

An existing interface material model for quasi-brittle fracture, originally developed within the Discrete Element Method framework, is implemented and enhanced for use in implicit Finite Element analyses of unreinforced masonry structures. The model captures mixed-mode fracture in tension-shear and combines cohesion with Coulomb friction in compression-shear. To address convergence issues arising when loading–unloading takes place, due to a discontinuity in the traction–separation relation, a regularization of the frictional contribution is proposed. A new model parameter is introduced and a calibration procedure to ensure numerical robustness and objectivity is presented. Furthermore, the consistent tangent stiffness matrix is derived to improve convergence in full-scale simulations. The improved model is applied within a simplified micromodelling approach to simulate the in-plane cyclic response of 2D masonry structures, including a shear wall and a spandrel subjected to a combination of horizontal and vertical actions. The results demonstrate that the model accurately reproduces key aspects of masonry behaviour, including stiffness degradation, energy dissipation, and crack patterns, while maintaining robustness and efficiency in complex cyclic loading scenarios.

This paper presents a cyclic joint constitutive model within a Distinct Element Method framework to simulate the in-plane response of unreinforced masonry structures. The model combines multi-surface failure criteria, including tensile cut-off, Coulomb friction, and an elliptical compression cap. It incorporates exponential softening, a unified damage scalar for stiffness degradation, and a hardening–softening law for compression. Shear-induced dilatancy is captured via an uplift-correction mechanism with an exponential dilatancy-decay law, while stiffness degradation governs energy dissipation. The model is validated at both material and structural scales. Material-level simulations of cyclic compression and shear tests show close agreement with experimental data. Structural-scale validation on full-height calcium-silicate walls under combined compression and cyclic lateral loading demonstrates the ability to reproduce rocking-dominated, shear-dominated, and hybrid failure mechanisms. The model successfully replicated global hysteretic force–drift loops, capturing stiffness decay and energy dissipation, as well as local failures like cracking, sliding, and toe crushing. The model also reproduced the drift-dependent transition from rocking to friction-controlled sliding, a key mechanism for earthquake assessment. By integrating these features into a single, efficient framework, the proposed constitutive model provides a robust tool for evaluating seismic performance and conserving heritage.

Simulating the seismic behaviour of unreinforced masonry (URM) is challenging due to large deformations and severe damage. Capturing this highly nonlinear response requires advanced numerical modelling strategies that represent block separation, debonding, friction, and impact. Discontinuum-based modelling strategies, such as the Distinct Element Method (DEM), are well suited, as they explicitly represent bond failure and damage progression from cracking to collapse. DEM relies on the explicit time integration scheme of motion equations; hence, the choice of the damping scheme becomes critical. Typically, mass-proportional damping is used in dynamic analysis, often without complementing it with stiffness-proportional damping which requires unpractical reduction of the time steps to ensure numerical stability. Yet relying solely on mass-proportional damping can overdamp low frequencies and underdamp high frequencies. This study implements and validates an alternative damping approach, Maxwell damping, where multiple spring-dashpot elements are introduced at unit-mortar interfaces within a simplified micro-model. This work introduces an optimization algorithm to tune the Maxwell elements without heuristics, targeting near-uniform damping over a broad frequency range. Effectiveness is assessed against shake-table tests on a full-scale cross-vault URM specimen. Predicted displacements, accelerations, damage evolution, and computational efficiency is compared with mass-proportional and zero-viscous damping models. This study investigates Maxwell damping as a practical relaxation scheme for the seismic analysis of complex masonry systems using DEM, building on prior formulations in the literature and extending them to the present modelling and validation context.

This study investigates the effects of differential support motions, caused by filtering effects due to the building response to earthquakes, on the one-way bending out-of-plane (OOP) behavior of unreinforced brick masonry walls, a factor often overlooked in seismic assessments. A high-fidelity block-based numerical model is used to simulate walls with varying slenderness ratios, precompression levels, and boundary conditions. Floor motions from shake-table tests on two-story masonry buildings with flexible and rigid attic diaphragms under induced and tectonic seismicity are applied at the top and base boundaries of the models as loading signals. Results show that differential motions between supports significantly influence OOP wall response, reducing the peak acceleration associated with signals to provide collapse while increasing displacement capacity. This effect is most pronounced in walls with lower-slenderness ratios, higher precompression, or constraints against uplift and rotation at the top, as differential loading disrupts vertical arching mechanisms that, otherwise, enhance stability under uniform boundary motions. Using only the base signal, a common simplification in seismic assessments fails to capture these differential effects. The results of the simulations are then examined to investigate the largest OOP displacement at which walls can regain stability under dynamic loading, calculating dynamic stability displacement thresholds and showing an average dynamic-to-static stability ratio of 62%, consistent with the 60% ratio used in safety standards. However, deviations occur in walls with failure mechanisms differing from typical flexural behavior. The findings provide critical insights for more accurate seismic assessment and retrofitting of masonry walls by highlighting the importance of considering differential motions. Additionally, this study offers supporting data for the dynamic stability displacement thresholds currently adopted in seismic assessment guidelines, addressing a gap in experimental data and improving the reliability of safety evaluations for unreinforced masonry structures under seismic loading.

Growing incidents of structural damage and failures underscore the urgent need for more advanced Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) solutions. While Multi-Temporal Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (MT-InSAR) has revolutionised SHM by enabling automated, long-term, and large-scale displacement monitoring of structures using Persistent Scatterers (PSs), its applicability is often constrained by the unpredictable spatial distribution of PSs. Conventional suitability assessments that rely primarily on PS density fail to account for the underlying structural behaviours, limiting their reliability.

This paper introduces a novel structural-based inverse approach that uniquely integrates MT-InSAR characteristics with structural response modelling to overcome these limitations. Unlike existing approaches, the method explicitly evaluates whether observed surface displacements adequately represent a target damage mechanism by comparing outputs from a pseudo sensor with those from a virtual MT-InSAR sensor. If this condition is satisfied, it then determines the minimum required number and optimal spatial arrangement of ideal PSs using modified pivoted QR factorisation, where satellite-induced positional uncertainties are rigorously modelled through Radial Basis Function kernels.

The proposed method was validated on a quay wall in Amsterdam using Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations of three distinct damage mechanisms. Results demonstrate its unique capability to quantitatively assess displacement representativeness and to pinpoint ideal PSs for robust monitoring. Leveraging these insights, the method was further applied to evaluate MT-InSAR monitoring feasibility across Amsterdam’s historic centre, successfully identifying quay wall segments amenable to reliable observation. This work represents a significant advancement in MT-InSAR-based SHM, providing a more targeted and structurally informed approach for real-world infrastructure monitoring.

Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide often feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls paired with pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes indicate that these components are vulnerable to out-of-plane seismic loads. This study presents key findings from the experimental campaign of the ERIES SUPREME project, which aims to advance understanding of the out-of-plane seismic response of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests simulating induced and tectonic seismicity scenarios were conducted on three full-scale URM gables, using two shake tables. Differential motions applied to the top and bottom tables allowed the simulation of gable interaction with distinctly different roof configurations. The experimental results are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behavior, and acceleration and displacement capacities. These findings will contribute to refining and calibrating existing numerical models.

Low-rise masonry buildings worldwide frequently feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls coupled with various pitched roof configurations supported by masonry gables. Past earthquakes have highlighted the vulnerability of these components to out-of-plane seismic loads due to their high slenderness, insufficient roof connections, and exposure to amplified accelerations while being subjected to minimal overburden due to their location at the upper part of buildings. This study presents key insights from the experimental campaign of the ERIES-SUPREME project, aimed at enhancing the understanding of the out-of-plane seismic behavior of masonry gables. Incremental dynamic tests were performed on three full-scale URM gables, simulating both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios until collapse, using two shake tables. Differential motions at the top and bottom tables reproduced the interaction of the gables with three different roof diaphragm configurations, each introducing a unique filtering effect on the seismic input. The outcomes of the experiments can be used for refining existing numerical modelling strategies as well as contribute to developing improved tools for the seismic assessment of URM gables.

Unreinforced masonry gables are widely present in low-rise existing buildings and are particularly vulnerable to seismic events, as demonstrated by the several observed out-of-plane collapses of these structural elements during earthquakes. Since the structural behaviour of gable walls has been scarcely investigated in the literature, a large-scale testing programme (ERIES-SUPREME) has been initiated by research institutions in the Netherlands (TU Delft, TNO) and Italy (EUCENTRE, University of Pavia, IUSS Pavia), to dynamically characterise the gable out-of-plane seismic response. Shake-table tests on full-scale masonry gables are being conducted at the 9D LAB facility in EUCENTRE (Pavia, Italy), incorporating the effects of different ground motions, structures and roof stiffnesses. This facility features both a top and a bottom shake table, allowing for separate input motions: therefore, the effect of the roof dynamic behaviour can be accounted for by applying differential signals. This work presents the procedure used to define such input motions. While for tectonic signals direct earthquake recordings at floor level are accessible from existing monitored masonry buildings in Italy, for induced signals in the Netherlands such data are not available. Thus, in the latter case, numerical analyses are conducted considering a reference unreinforced masonry building subjected to induced earthquakes, with three roof configurations representing flexible, semi-flexible, and stiff diaphragms. Based on the obtained outcomes, input signals are derived for both induced and tectonic earthquake scenarios, leading to the final definition of the testing protocol for the ERIES-SUPREME experimental campaign. The findings of this study are also broadly applicable for the derivation of input motions in the planning of benchmark experiments where parts of the structural system cannot be explicitly reproduced due to testing constraints.

This article presents a dataset from an experimental campaign investigating the out-of-plane (OOP) seismic response of unreinforced masonry (URM) gables in existing buildings. Addressing a critical gap in published research, the dataset provides novel experimental data on the incremental dynamic OOP behavior of three URM gables tested under seismic loading until full collapse. All three gables were nominally identical but differed in their interaction with the supporting roof structure. This interaction was experimentally reproduced by imposing differential motions at the top of the gables, which were either linearly amplified or both amplified and phase-shifted relative to the motion at the base. This approach ensured idealized and numerically replicable boundary conditions, making the dataset an ideal benchmark for refining existing and developing new modeling approaches for URM structures. The dataset includes measured and calculated acceleration, displacement, and force time histories. Beyond supporting the validation and development of numerical models, it can also contribute to improving guidelines for the out-of-plane seismic assessment of URM gables and is openly available for further research and engineering applications.

This paper presents a comprehensive review of the effects of interactions between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors, referred to as IP-OOP interactions, on the seismic behavior of framed unreinforced masonry structures, consolidating findings from experimental, numerical, and analytical studies available in the literature. While masonry structures are highly vulnerable to seismic loading and undergo multi-directional seismic actions, most existing research focuses on their response to unidirectional forces, overlooking the complex interaction effects observed during real earthquakes. Moreover, although design and assessment standards acknowledge these interactions, they offer limited prescriptive guidance. The literature predominantly addresses the impact of IP pre-damage on OOP strength and stability (IP/OOP interaction), with comparatively fewer studies examining the reverse scenario, i.e., OOP pre-loading affecting IP resistance (OOP/IP interaction). Experimental data remains scarce, particularly for multi-bay frames and walls with openings, limiting the generalizability of current findings. Numerical simulations have significantly advanced the understanding of these interactions, yet their reliability relies on proper calibration against benchmark experiments, which are still limited in number. Among the most influential parameters affecting the effect of IP pre-damage on the OOP response, the height-to-thickness slenderness ratio plays a dominant role. Slender walls are especially prone to severe OOP strength degradation due to reduced arching action and increased instability. The length-to-height aspect ratio also influences failure modes under IP/OOP interaction, particularly in short walls where horizontal arching action reduces. Other critical factors, such as masonry material properties, boundary conditions, and frame stiffness, have been identified, but their effects remain less systematically studied. Analytical approaches have primarily focused on IP/OOP interaction effects. However, existing equations are often derived from limited datasets, restricting their predictive capabilities. The equation widely adopted in seismic guidelines has been shown to overestimate OOP strength reduction, underscoring the need for more refined models that incorporate broader experimental and numerical data. Future research should address these gaps by expanding experimental campaigns, enhancing numerical methodologies, and refining analytical frameworks to better represent real-world conditions.

This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP actions, or pre-existing IP and OOP damage, deformation, or loads that can alter their unidirectional IP or OOP seismic response. Second, the IP and OOP action of one wall can affect the behavior of its intersecting walls. However, the effects of these behaviors, referred to as “direct IP-OOP interactions” and “Flange effects”, respectively, are often disregarded in design and assessment provisions. To address this gap, this study explores findings from experimental and numerical research conducted at the wall level currently available in the literature, identifying the nature of these interaction effects and the key parameters that affect their extent. The available body of work includes only a few experimental studies on interaction effects, whereas numerical investigations are more extensive. However, most numerical studies focus on how OOP pre-damage/deformation influences the IP behaviors (OOP/IP interactions) and the role of flanges in IP response (F/IP interactions), leaving significant gaps in understanding the effects of IP pre-damage/deformation on the OOP response (IP/OOP interactions) and the OOP response in the presence of flanges (F/OOP interactions). Among the parameters studied, boundary conditions, wall height-to-length aspect ratio, and vertical overburden are found to have the most significant influence on interaction effects because of their relevance for the IP and OOP failure mechanisms. Other parameters, such as the restriction of top uplift, the presence of openings, or changes in slenderness ratio, are not comprehensively studied, and the available data are insufficient for definitive conclusions. Methodologies available in the literature for extrapolating the findings observed at the wall level to building-level analyses are reviewed. The current predictive equations primarily address the effects of OOP pre-load and Flange effects on IP response. Furthermore, only a few macro-element models are proposed for cost-effective, large-scale building simulations. To bridge these gaps, future research must expand experimental investigations, develop more comprehensive design and assessment equations, and refine numerical modeling techniques for building-level applications.

Masonry quay walls are vital infrastructure in many historic cities, serving both functional and historical purposes. Originally designed as gravity retaining walls, they now face increased vehicle loads and widespread material degradation, particularly in timber foundations. Traditional assessment methods are often overly conservative, lacking standard procedures for multi-wythe masonry characterisation.With over 200 km of quay walls in Amsterdamrequiring renovation, there is an urgent need for practical, reliable assessment methods. This paper provides an overview of recent research conducted at TU Delft with focus on the response of masonry superstructure, presenting and discussing key advancements in the development of high-fidelity static and dynamic finite element models and minor-destructive testing for masonry mechanical property characterisation.

This study deals with the high-fidelity block-based finite element simulation of dynamic out-of-plane (OOP) responses of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, explicitly focusing on two-way bending behaviors under seismic loads, which is a common critical failure mode in real-world masonry structures. While experimental shake-table tests provide valuable insights into these behaviors, their high costs, complexity, and limited scalability highlight the need for advanced numerical modeling approaches. A state-of-the-art block-based finite element modeling strategy that conceives masonry as an assemblage of 3D damaging blocks interacting via contact-based cohesive-frictional zero-thickness interfaces, previously proposed for simulating cyclic quasi-static and dynamic one-way bending tests, is here extended for the first time to the simulation of incremental dynamic shake-table tests on OOP two-way spanning URM full-scale walls, subjected to a sequence of dynamic loads. The numerical models track the reference experimental behaviors with high accuracy in terms of collapse onset, failure mechanism, experienced acceleration and displacements, and hysteretic response. The effects of variations in mechanical properties, boundary conditions, and damping on the dynamic response are explored in a sensitivity study. The results indicate that slight changes in these parameters can lead to considerable differences in outcomes. This highlights the chaotic nature of the dynamic response of masonry walls, especially in near-collapse conditions, which makes probabilistic approaches more suitable for predicting masonry OOP dynamics. The proposed numerical methodology appears compatible with statistical frameworks, given the limited costs with respect to experimental tests, and it extends knowledge beyond physical experiments.

Typical low-rise masonry buildings worldwide commonly feature unreinforced masonry (URM) walls, often paired with various pitched roof configurations supported or finished by masonry gables. These buildings constitute a significant portion of the building stock in several seismic-prone regions, including areas vulnerable to both natural and induced seismicity. Masonry gables in such buildings are frequently associated with high seismic vulnerability, as evidenced by damage observed after past earthquakes. This paper presents key results from an experimental campaign aimed at enhancing the understanding of the seismic out-of-plane response of masonry gables. Incremental full-scale shake-table tests were performed on three densely instrumented URM gables until the complete collapse. Within this context, the study systematically investigated the effects of motions applied at the top of the gable, both being linearly amplified as well as amplified and out-of-phase, with respect to the motion applied at the base of the gable. Such differential motions simulate the effect of the gable interaction with three different roof configurations, each exerting a different filtering effect on the seismic motion. The response of the gables to both induced and tectonic earthquakes was considered. The experimental findings are presented in terms of failure mechanisms, force-displacement hysteresis behaviour, and acceleration and displacement capacities. All generated experimental data, along with the associated instrumentation schemes, are openly available for download at https://doi.org/10.60756/euc-1avy7q49.

Masonry structures occupy a significant share of the current building stock due to widespread material availability and cost-effectiveness. Regions with high seismicity, such as the Himalayas, have often developed a local seismic culture over the centuries. This has led to improved construction techniques providing an enhanced seismic performance, as evident from post-earthquake surveys in this area. In this framework, Bhatar is a building typology found in the greater Himalayan region, which features embedded horizontal timber bands in masonry walls, enhancing the box-behaviour and in turn avoiding their premature out-of-plane failure. This work aims to quantify the improvement of the out-of-plane performance of masonry walls because of the presence of horizontal timber bands. In order to achieve this research objective, numerical analyses were conducted in DIANA FEA finite element software starting from the few experimental results on this building typology available in the literature. These were used to calibrate the properties of masonry, which was represented as a homogeneous isotropic continuum, with nonlinearities taken into account by means of a total strain rotating crack model. Firstly, a U-shaped masonry wall having the same geometry and boundary conditions as the experimental tests was simulated using a 3D modelling approach. Non-linear static analyses were performed and very good agreement was obtained with the results from the literature. On this basis, the calibrated numerical model was then employed to conduct sensitivity analyses considering varying factors, such as masonry material properties, geometry, opening configurations, timber section sizes and properties. The outcomes of this extensive study show a considerable improvement in the out-of-plane response of the masonry walls in the presence of horizontal timber bands. Given the limited research conducted on the Bhatar building typology in the past, this work constitutes a further step towards a better understanding of the behaviour of Himalayan masonry structures under earthquakes, promoting more effective seismic risk reduction strategies. This improved understanding into timber’s role in imparting greater seismic resilience to masonry structures can inform better maintenance, conservation and preservation of heritage and historical masonry structures in the Himalayas.