This paper presents a framework for developing fragility curves for masonry buildings on strip foundations exposed to subsidence using non-linear finite element (NLFE) analyses. A 2D plane-stress model of a masonry façade is used to evaluate the probability of cracking damage resulting from settlements. The model simulates the behaviour of typical Dutch two-storey historical buildings, using an established modelling approach to represent the non-linear behaviour of the façade, the transversal walls and the strip foundation, supported by a base interface for soil-foundation interaction. Settlements are imposed at the bottom of the interface, characterizing their intensity with the angular distortion. The damage severity is objectively quantified using the scalar parameter Ψ, computed considering the number, length, and width of the cracks. Cumulative probability functions are derived from 864 numerical analyses that account for realistic variations in building and soil features, including 3 masonry materials, 2 strip foundation systems, 2 interface soil materials and the 72 possible settlement patterns. The effect of each selected variation is evaluated individually. The proposed curves reveal a probability of over 25% for cracks up to 5 mm in width when the angular distortion equal to 0.2% (or 1/500), the threshold deemed acceptable by international codes, is applied to the models. Doubling the applied angular distortion results in an approximate doubling of the probability of damage. While the proposed curves are specific to the selected geometry, the framework can be adapted to accommodate different façade geometries, enabling the development of more comprehensive fragility functions.

Historical masonry façades are susceptible to variations in temperature. This is because their movements—expansion caused by an increase in temperature or contraction by a decrease—are restrained by other structural elements. To analyse these effects, models typically assign a prescribed strain to the façade while enforcing a rigid boundary at the foundation (or the floors, if they are rigid). More advanced models include the foundation, with a stiffness different from that of the façade and no prescribed strain, as the restraining element. This leads to conservative estimations of damage since the restraining effect is large. Indeed, these models can be further improved. A temperature gradient across the façade, including the foundation, can produce more gradual strains in the material and thus less damage. For this study, the improvements consider the inclusion of the soil underneath the building. A realistic temperature gradient for a sunny summer day or a chilly winter night, including a gradient over the foundation and into the soil, is applied. The restraining effects are provided by the soil and the temperature gradients. In this manner, the consequences of temperature variations on clay-brick masonry façades are investigated. The models reveal that damage, observed as cracking in the non-linear masonry model, is significantly reduced when applying the more gradual temperature profiles. Moreover, the damage patterns observed are different from those obtained from a simpler model. This is an important observation since crack patterns are sometimes employed to determine the origin of the damage. Furthermore, the type of soil also plays a role in the intensity of damage observed for identical temperature profiles. Softer soils, such as clay, peat, or loam, provide less restraint than stiffer soils like sand. Hence, façades on softer soils are less likely to develop damage from temperature variations.

Temperature variations in masonry façades can induce expansion and contraction movements. When these movements are restrained, cracking and material degradation may occur, especially in older buildings lacking movement or expansion joints. Such temperature variations arise from factors as solar radiation, shading, material color, reflectivity, and environmental conditions. This study investigates the magnitude and spatial distribution of surface temperature variations (ΔT) on exterior masonry wall surfaces using outdoor infrared (IR) thermography. A better understanding of the magnitude and distribution of ΔT is essential for accurate damage assessment and for improving the attributability of observed damage to temperature effects rather than to other causes. Field data were collected in Delft, the Netherlands. Thermal images were captured with an IR camera to identify temperature differences across various points on exterior wall surfaces under direct solar radiation and varying shading conditions. The acquired imagery was analyzed using temperature histograms and profiles to quantify thermal gradients over the surface area of the façades. Results revealed significant spatial temperature variations, with measured ΔT values reaching up to 13 °C between the warmest and coolest zones on individual façades. Even where façades showed no pronounced surface gradients, temperature differences of up to 6 °C occurred between different, contiguous exterior walls of the same building. The study demonstrates that outdoor thermography, combined with targeted image processing, effectively identifies thermal gradients on masonry façades. These gradients reflect uneven thermal responses under real environmental conditions, which can accelerate moisture-related damage, cracking, and material fatigue. The findings emphasize the need to account for surface temperature heterogeneity in damage assessment of existing structures.

Historical buildings in the Netherlands are often founded on shallow, unreinforced foundations atop soft soils such as peat, clay, or loam, making them vulnerable to ground movements. These movements can result from autonomous settlements due to the building’s own weight, or from changes in the soil related to water table variations. Such sources typically induce differential vertical displacements, expressed as ground surface curvature. Movements from deeper sources, such as mining or tunnelling, also cause horizontal displacements or surface strains.

Masonry buildings are sensitive to strains from restrained shrinkage, temperature fluctuations, and soil movements. This study examines façade damage due to a combination of curvature and horizontal strain imposed through the foundations. Non-linear models of masonry façades were placed on a deformable soil block, whose boundaries were manipulated to create targeted combinations of curvature and strain at the surface.

The analysis of various combinations showed that while curvature and horizontal strain each cause damage—manifested as cracks in the masonry—their combination amplifies it. For instance, cracks 1 mm wide appear at a tensile strain of 5e−4 (0.5 mm/m), but when combined with an angular distortion of 1e−3 rad, only half that strain is needed to produce similar damage.

Understanding how curvature and strain interact to damage façades helps define safer deformation limits for vulnerable historical buildings, particularly in areas affected by water table regulation or mining. Additionally, the initial condition of structures must be considered when evaluating their vulnerability to external hazards, including seismic activity.

Temperature effects are frequently cited as the cause of light cracking in masonry façades, yet most modelling studies idealise thermal loading as uniform steps and represent restraint as fully fixed, assumptions that tend to exaggerate damage. This work evaluates whether realistic, non-uniform temperature gradients, like those produced by shading and insolation, together with soil–structure interaction as the dominant restraint mechanism, can generate cracking patterns consistent with field observations. A coupled thermo-mechanical FEM model with a homogenised masonry continuum and tensile softening is employed; the façade–foundation–soil system is modelled explicitly, and damage is quantified using a crack-based index Ψ. A parametric campaign (1200 simulations) spans two façade typologies (clay masonry on unreinforced masonry foundations; calcium-silicate on reinforced concrete strips), three layered soils, 33 geometries, and multiple vertical and two-dimensional gradient shapes. The results indicate that gradient shape is decisive: widely distributed vertical gradients trigger visible damage (Ψ≥1) at roughly half the temperature differential required by more localised gradients, with visible damage becoming likely around ΔT≈20 °C (warming) and ≈25 °C (cooling) for the most adverse shapes. Restraint stiffness governs severity: stiffer sandy profiles increase tensile stresses and cracking, whereas softer profiles accommodate thermal movement; relative to uniform, fully restrained models, crack initiation is delayed by ∼15–20 °C and cracking is less distributed. Geometric discontinuities also dominate sensitivity: larger/more openings and low vertical-masonry ratios promote earlier localisation, while overall length/height is secondary. Fragility-like curves provide thresholds useful for assessment and mitigation.

Subsidence caused by natural or human-induced factors can occur unevenly, resulting in differential settlements. Existing unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings are susceptible to damage from differential settlements. However, the extent of the damage varies between structures, depending on factors such as the magnitude and pattern of the settlements, along with the features of the building and the properties of the underlying soil. Non-linear finite element analyses (NLFEA) are often used for studying the damage response, accounting for variability in soil and structural features. This study uses 6912 NLFEA, including 8 variations in façade geometry, 3 masonry materials, 2 soils, 2 shallow foundation systems, and 72 settlement patterns, to develop fragility curves for URM buildings undergoing subsidence. Old Dutch URM buildings with strip foundations are modelled using 2D plane-stress façade models, accounting for non-linear smeared shearing, cracking and crushing of masonry and 3D effects of transverse walls. Settlement troughs are applied at a non-linear soil-foundation interface, with angular distortion (β) progressively increasing to quantify settlement intensity and building deformation. As β increases, the NLFE models exhibit progressive cracking damage, with severity objectively assessed through the parameter Ψ considering crack width, length, and number. Then, the distortion β is used as the demand parameter to develop the fragility curves. The analysis shows that long façades are twice as likely to experience 5 mm cracks from settlement damage compared to short façades under an applied β of 2 ‰ (1/500). For this applied β, proposed as an acceptable limit for many structures in the Eurocode, half of the models exhibit cracks up to 5 mm wide. Therefore, while 1/500 may be considered safe for structural integrity, it can still lead to noticeable damage. Light damage occurs even at angular distortion values below 0.5 ‰ (1/2000), with 10 % of models showing cracks up to 1 mm wide.

Masonry quay walls are vital infrastructure in many historic cities, serving both functional and historical purposes. Originally designed as gravity retaining walls, they now face increased vehicle loads and widespread material degradation, particularly in timber foundations. Traditional assessment methods are often overly conservative, lacking standard procedures for multi-wythe masonry characterisation.With over 200 km of quay walls in Amsterdamrequiring renovation, there is an urgent need for practical, reliable assessment methods. This paper provides an overview of recent research conducted at TU Delft with focus on the response of masonry superstructure, presenting and discussing key advancements in the development of high-fidelity static and dynamic finite element models and minor-destructive testing for masonry mechanical property characterisation.

Damage assessment for masonry structures subjected to settlement is crucial for ensuring structural safety, guiding repairs, and preserving the built environment. Non-linear finite element modelling offers an effective approach for this purpose, though balancing model complexity, computational cost, and predictive reliability remains a key challenge. This study addresses the absence of a systematic comparison between macro- and simplified micro-modelling strategies for such analyses, clarifying their respective strengths, limitations, and sensitivity to key parameters. The performance and accuracy of semi-coupled NLFEM models are compared in simulating the response of a 1/10th scaled masonry façade under settlement, available from prior research. The two approaches considered are: simplified micro-modelling, where bricks are represented as expanded blocks with non-linear interfaces for mortar joints and their contact edges, and macro-modelling, where masonry is homogenised into an equivalent orthotropic composite material. The macro-models employ two well-established constitutive models, the Total Strain Rotating Crack Model (TSRCM) and the Engineering Masonry Model (EMM), to capture the non-linear cracking behaviour of masonry. Sensitivity analyses assess the influence of base interface models and the interface’s tangential stiffness. The results show how the selection of the modelling approach depends on the analysis objective: The macro-model with the Engineering Masonry Model best predicts damage severity, deviating by only 10% from the experiment, further improved by calibrating the minimum head-joint tensile strength. While all models yield similar predictions for vertical displacements of the façade, the TSRCM better captures overall and horizontal displacements, whereas the simplified micro-model more accurately represents the crack pattern. The EMM-based macro-models are the most computationally efficient, with TSRCM requiring 1.5 times the CPU time of EMM, and the micro-model requiring twice as much. The analysis also shows that the TSRCM-based macro-model is more sensitive to variations in the type of base interface models and base interface tangential stiffness, convergence criteria, incremental-iterative procedure, and analysis settings, whereas the EMM macro-model and the simplified micro-model are less affected. By identifying the strengths and limitations of each modelling approach, this study supports informed modelling choices for a more reliable assessment of settlement damage, contributing to the effective protection of existing masonry structures.

Masonry buildings in the Netherlands are especially prone to damage in the form of small cracks. This is because the masonry is unreinforced, the foundations are shallow and often also unreinforced, the bedding is composed of soft soils like peat or clay, dilation joints are missing in older or historical structures, and current loading conditions, such as earthquake vibrations, were never considered in the design of the buildings. The latter includes mining operations for salt and gas that have led to subsidence and induced seismicity. Moreover, farming policy and water management, in combination with regional subsidence, have led to varying groundwater table levels which, in turn, cause wetting and drying of sensitive soils. This process is exacerbated by more extreme seasons of precipitation and drought because of climate change, leading to swelling and compaction of the ground underneath buildings. To understand building damage in this context, it is necessary to evaluate the combined effects of these various hazards. Their actions can be decomposed into vibrations caused by earthquakes and ground deformations. The former can be characterized by the PGV or PGA of the vibrations, and the latter by the induced curvature of the soil surface and/or by the horizontal strains at the surface because of deformations deep in the underground. Moreover, repeated earthquake events and seasonal soil subsidence or heave lead to cyclic actions. The contribution and interaction of these loads causing progressive damage to masonry buildings have been the focus of an extensive modelling study with detailed non-linear models of the buildings and the soil. The slow soil deformations were analyzed first and served as the starting point for subsequent, repeated vibrations. For example, a horizontal strain of 0.1 mm/m caused by mining, in combination with an angular distortion of 1/2000 due to local soil compaction, can produce cracks of about 1 to 2 mm wide in a particular masonry façade. The damage is then aggravated by an earthquake vibration in the order of 5 mm/s, which is further increased by about 10% with a repeated event. The expected final damage may include multiple cracks of up to 3 mm. In this manner, the combination of all actions can lead to the establishment of conservative thresholds to prevent or limit damage to existing structures.

Cycles of settlement and uplift beneath existing masonry structures can lead to visible cracks, which not only affect the aesthetic appearance and functionality of the building but can also compromise its structural integrity and undermine the occupants' sense of safety. These cyclic ground movements can be triggered by seasonal actions, such as fluctuation in the groundwater table. In the Netherlands, many existing masonry structures on shallow foundations rest directly on the subsurface, making them vulnerable to cyclic ground movements. Settlement and uplift cycles cause “breathing” masonry cracks, which open and close over time without fully sealing. This study uses finite element analyses to investigate and assess the damage of structures subjected to cyclic quasi-static ground movements. A case study is presented for the analysis, featuring the geometry of an existing low-rise masonry structure with an age exceeding 50 years. A 3D non-linear shell-element model is used to evaluate the structural response, featuring an unreinforced strip foundation and including the non-linear tensile softening and cracking behaviour of masonry. Heaving and sinking displacements are applied to a non-linear interface simulating the soil-foundation interaction at the bottom of the strip foundation. The intensity of the ground displacements is quantified by their angular distortion. A damage parameter objectively assesses the severity of damage by considering the number, length, and width of cracks. Results indicate that repeated cycles of settlement (and uplift) have been observed to cause irreversible cracking damage in the model, with crack widths ranging from 1 to 5 mm, progressively increasing over time. Damage occurring during settlement is, on average, twice as severe as that during uplift. Overall, cycles of settlement and uplift may induce cracking damage up to twice as high as that caused by cycles of settlement alone, depending on the magnitude and shape of the ground movements.

This paper introduces novel analysis procedures for the structural assessment of masonry earth retaining structures subjected to traffic loading. Given their substantial presence, particularly in transportation networks of historical cities, and the challenges posed by ageing, deterioration, and exposure to loads beyond their original design considerations, this research highlights the necessity of accounting for potential load redistribution mechanisms during their assessment. This can prevent overly conservative interventions that may not be necessary and also contravene sustainability and heritage preservation principles. Four distinct analysis procedures – 2D monotonic, 3D monotonic, 3D static moving load and 3D dynamic moving load – are developed, each progressively more refined than its predecessor in capturing potential load redistribution mechanisms in masonry earth retaining structures. These mechanisms may develop due to the dynamic loading conditions of the vehicular passage, the 3D structural configuration of retaining structures, and non-linear material behaviour. By comparing the structural capacity evaluated using the four procedures, contributions from different sources of load redistribution can be separately quantified, aiding in the reduction of conservatism inherent in less refined assessment procedures. The application of the developed procedures and consequent quantification of load redistribution is demonstrated through a case study of an existing masonry retaining structure in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Historical quay walls, constructed in unreinforced masonry, play a crucial role in the infrastructure of many Dutch cities. Designed originally as gravity retaining walls, these structures are increasingly subjected to traffic loads due to vehicles operating on roads built on their backfill. This study conducts a preliminary numerical evaluation of a strengthening technique aimed at prolonging the service life of such quay walls, focusing on a specific case in Amsterdam. The strengthening method involves drilling tubular steel piles through the existing masonry to anchor into a stable soil layer, with the piles bonded to the masonry using low-shrinkage casting concrete. The assessment models the interaction between the strengthening technique and the existing quay structures, including a detailed simulation of the installation process, identified as critical for proper simulation of the structural behaviour. While the technique significantly enhances the quay's force capacity, an improvement in displacement capacity was not evident, highlighting the need for further investigation.

In this study, 2D and 3D modelling strategies are used to represent the behaviour of historical masonry buildings on strip foundations undergoing settlements. The application focuses on a two-story building, typical of the Dutch architectural heritage. An improved 2D modelling is presented: It includes the effect of the lateral walls to replicate the response of the detailed 3D models. The masonry strip foundation is modelled and supported by a no-tension interface, which represents the soil-foundation interaction. Two settlement configurations, hogging and sagging, are applied to the models, and their intensity is characterized using their angular distortion. The improved 2D model that includes the stiffness and weight of the lateral walls agrees in terms of displacements, stress and damage with the detailed 3D models. Conversely, the simplified 2D façade models without lateral walls exhibit different cracking, and damage from 2 to 7 times lower at an applied angular distortion of 2‰ (1/500). The improved 2D model requires less computational and modelling burden, resulting in analyses from 9 to 40 times faster than the 3D models. The results prove the importance of identifying and including the 3D effects that affect the response of structures subjected to settlements.

In the Netherlands, subsidence due to different causes is linked to damage to the ubiquitous masonry structures. Finite element (FE) analyses can be used to assess the response of the structures subjected to settlements. This paper presents the comparison between three-dimensional FE modelling strategies to investigate the response of an unreinforced masonry building on a strip foundation. The aim is to investigate whether different modelling approaches demonstrate consistent results. The soil-structure system is modelled employing two strategies: a coupled model, in which the structure is tied to the soil volume, and an uncoupled approach that divides the soil and structure into two sub-systems. Two displacement fields, imposed at the bottom of the soil volume, idealize various shapes of the subsidence troughs, with increasing intensity measured by their distortion. Non-linear interfaces are used to simulate the soil-foundation interaction, and their stiffness values vary based on the type of model. The displacements, interface stresses and crack patterns of the selected modelling strategies are consistent. The interface types do not influence the response of the façade, whereas the shape of the settlement does play a key role. The uncoupled models exhibit, on average, slightly higher values of damage than coupled models for a given imposed distortion. The two modelling strategies require almost the same computational time and show similar convergence. Because of the limited contribution of small soil volumes in uncoupled models, the superstructure sub-system can be directly utilized to assess the response of structures undergoing vertical displacements, thereby reducing the modelling burden.

This paper demonstrates the use of non-linear finite element modelling to investigate the response of structures subjected to different shapes of subsidence-related ground settlements. The approach is presented with reference to a two-storey unreinforced masonry façade resting on a shallow foundation. Eight realistic settlement shapes, based on field and literature data, are applied in the model with increasing intensity. The intensity of the subsidence profiles is characterized using their (angular) distortion. The extent of the induced damage on the façade is objectively and directly quantified by a damage parameter, based on the number of cracks, their length and opening. The performance of different settlement indicators and corresponding limiting values, typically employed in the state of the art, is in this paper discussed in relation to the damage modelling strategy; these are observed to be dependent on the shape of the settlement profiles. The aim of this paper is thus to provide insight into the extent to which the vulnerability of masonry buildings depends on the shape of the subsidence pattern and may serve as a warning not to use (deterministic) damage indicators such as angular distortion without considering the settlement shape.

Historical quay walls constructed in unreinforced masonry are integral elements of many cities. Originally designed as gravity retaining walls, they are nowadays often subjected to the action of traffic loads as a result of vehicles travelling on roads constructed on their backfill. This paper presents a numerical analysis procedure for carrying out the structural assessment of quay walls under traffic loads. The procedure simulates the non-linear dynamic response of the quay wall under the effect of the passage of a vehicle. Non-linear dynamic calculations are performed not only to be representative of the actual nature of loading but also to produce realistic estimations of structural safety, load redistribution capacities and displacements. Adopting a tier-based approach, the computational burden typically associated with such simulations is significantly reduced. This is obtained by adopting simplifications which allow for the modelling the 3D soil block comprising the backfill of the quay wall only in the first tier of the procedure. To demonstrate the implementation of the procedure, a detailed application to an existing quay wall in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, is presented. Different foundation damage scenarios are also considered. Though the procedure is presented in this paper for a specific typology of quay walls, it has conceptual and methodological value. With appropriate modifications it can be used for the structural assessment of other earth retaining structures as well, under the effect of vehicular traffic on their backfills.

This study aims to investigate the damage response of unreinforced masonry (URM) façades resting on strip foundations and subjected to ground settlements via numerical models. The models depict the non-linear constitutive behaviour of both the masonry, via smeared cracking, and of the soil-foundation interaction, via nonlinear interface elements. The influence of building features, such as the masonry material, the length over height (L/H) ratio of the geometry, the wall thickness, the number and size of openings and different types of strip foundations (i.e. reinforced concrete and unreinforced) is examined. A sensitivity study additionally investigates the influence of the interface stiffness and its constitutive model. A Gaussian curve is used to replicate the shape of the ground settlements; These simulate the loss of support underneath the foundation due to urban subsidence. Eight settlement shapes are applied in the FE models, including both symmetric and asymmetric profiles, while the angular distortion is used to measure their intensity. A new aspect is that the extent of the induced damage to the façade is assessed objectively using a damage parameter that represents the number, length and width of cracks in a single scalar value. The method distinguishes between the applied settlement profile at the bottom of the interface and the retrieved settlement profile measured on the façade. The analyses indicate that for a value of the angular distortion equal to 2 ‰ (or 1/500), computed from the resulting deformations of the façades, 60% of the models exhibit serviceability damage associated with cracks of about 5 mm width. Accordingly, the limit values available in the literature are observed to be too optimistic and not conservative in relation to the analyses presented in this study. A key outcome is that facades with an L/H smaller or equal to 1 do not exhibit cracks wider than 1 mm. Façades on reinforced concrete foundations were observed to be less susceptible to settlement damage, compared to unreinforced ones.

This paper presents an improved 2D modelling strategy which aims to represent the behavior of historical unreinforced masonry buildings on shallow foundations subjected to ground settlements. The application is presented with reference to a two-storey building, typical of the Dutch built heritage. The novelty comprises the inclusion of the effect of the lateral house-to-house separation walls of such old buildings. Additionally, the masonry strip foundation is modelled and supported by a boundary interface representing the interaction between the soil and the foundation. Two realistic hogging and sagging settlement configurations are applied to the model and their intensity is characterized using the angular distortion of the settlement shape. The response in terms of damage and deformations of the proposed modelling strategy is compared with the ones of five selected approaches based on the state of the art. For all the selected models, the damage severity is quantified objectively by means of a scalar parameter, which is computed considering the cracks’ number, length, and width.

The results of the proposed 2D model agree in terms of displacements, crack patterns and damage with the 3D models. On the contrary, the façade models that do not include the effect of the lateral walls do not exhibit the same cracking and damage, resulting in lower damage and deformations for the same applied angular distortion. Accordingly, the proposed modelling strategy requires less modelling complexity and the analyses are 9 to 28 times faster to run with respect to the 3D models. The efficient and accurate model allows performing a wide number of analyses to easily investigate the role of the various building’s features.

Historical masonry façades are sensitive to various damaging processes. A recent study, looking at the initiation and progression of cracks in masonry, in the range of 0.1 to 5 mm in width and thus corresponding to light damage [1], has allowed for the calibration of finite-element models that include a material model capable of accurately replicating this damage and which is populated with material properties corresponding to existing structures [6]. The models, which also include a soil-structure interaction boundary designed to account for the effect of the soil during earthquake vibrations [7], have been used to determine the fragility of masonry buildings via the proxy of 2D walls [2]. In the study presented herein, the finite element models are employed to replicate the geometry of (historical) masonry facades to determine their sensitivity to light damage as a consequence of the two damaging processes observed to be most common for this type of façade, namely (differential) settlements and (earthquake) vibrations [3]. The masonry façades were first pre-damaged via settlement distortions which generate just-visible cracks in the order of 0.1 mm to 1 mm in width. Then, an acceleration time history corresponding to two different Dutch earthquake events and two recordings of traffic-induced building vibrations [9] were separately applied at the base of the models. In this manner, the effect of existing damage could be assessed in regards to the aggravation generated by vibrations. The settlement part of the study revealed that long façades were more vulnerable to applied soil distortions, for instance. Then, subsequent vibrations further increased damage for intensities measured with a peak ground velocity (PGV) larger than 2 mm/s while the control set of virgin or uncracked façades remained undamaged at this PGV. At 32 mm/s, many pre-damaged façades also exceeded the light damage range. At equal PGV, the traffic vibrations, with a larger number of effective cycles, resulted in increased damage aggravation in comparison to the earthquake recordings.

Canals delimited by masonry quay walls are integral elements of many cities in the Netherlands. Historically built to enable the efficient transportation of goods, today such infrastructure also gives the cities their historical and monumental character. In recent years, many quay walls in the Netherlands have shown substantial deformation and damage, and in few cases even collapse. Historical quay walls, which are constructed in thick multi-wythe unreinforced brick masonry and are supported on a system of timber piles, nowadays sustain traffic loads larger than the one they were designed for. Instances of collapse and severe damage has given rise to a need for research assessing the safety of these structures, which are not appropriately covered by any normative or standardised guidelines. This paper presents a novel methodology to numerically assess the performance of masonry walls in historical quays under the dynamic effect of traffic loads. Application of the proposed methodology to a case study in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, is presented.