This research focusses on the decision-making processes of energy regions regarding the energy transition in The Netherlands. The Netherlands has ratified the Climate Agreement in 2019, which thirty energy regions combined need to put in their efforts to reach the target of producing 35 TWh in 2030. One of the key elements in the energy regions is the active involvement of citizens through participation. However, a good relationship between the municipalities in the energy region is not self-evident. The thirty energy regions in the Netherlands have the task to form and lead and provide access to information and other forms of citizen support. Every energy region takes its own approach to involve citizens in their energy transition decision-making. Therefore, it is interesting to study to what extent and in which manners energy regions are able to involve citizens in the RES decision-making and in which ways governments are able to live up to their own participation goals. This embedded case study focusses on energy region Holland Rijnland, with a focus on six municipalities in this region: Katwijk, Leiden, Lisse, Zoeterwoude, Alphen aan den Rijn and Nieuwkoop. Taken the challenges and research objectives from previous paragraphs into consideration, the following main research question can be formed: “In which ways is citizen participation present, organized and influencing the initiation, design and implementation phases of the energy transition in the energy region Holland Rijnland?”

Participatory Value Evaluation (PVE) is a webtool-based participation method that is used to increase participation by others than the usual suspects. In PVE, respondents are asked to allocate a budget or points to a portfolio of projects that reflect real policy options, therewith evaluating the projects by stating their preferences. However, the provision of information in PVE on complex subjects such as urban climate adaptation still is characterized by some problems such as susceptibility by framing, misinterpretation and self-selection. In other words, information provision often does not comply with wishes and needs of participants. In this research, two information provision approaches are tested in PVE in an information manipulation experiment. From the research both quantitative as qualitative results are obtained, analysed by using a mixed methods approach. It is observed that the tested information provision approaches do not affect the choices made in PVE or participants’ feeling of empowerment. Moreover, it appears that the wishes and needs for information in PVE vary widely between participants. It is concluded that this heterogeneity should be the starting point in designing information provision. Deliberative participation and progressive disclosure of information are ways to accomplish this. It is recommended to apply these approaches in PVE in future research.

Reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 is vital to limit global warming to 1.5◦C. Decarbonizing the heating sector that is globally responsible for half of total energy consumption is necessary to achieve climate-neutrality goals. The complex nature of the heating sector (characterized by variable market demands, and complicated stakeholder networks) has resisted the stakeholder alignment necessary to develop sustainable heating solutions. Co-creation provides a viable solution - a governance structure characterized by multiple, semi-autonomous centres for decision-making. There is little insight, however, into co-creation strategies in the field of sustainable heating. State-of-the-art literature indicates the need to explore the theoretical underpinnings for co-creation. Furthermore, if performed incorrectly, co-creation can result in the destruction of the public value and citizen rights it aims to uphold. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD)Framework provides a systematic method to analyze policy activities, over varying temporal, geographic and socioeconomic contexts. This body of research takes a novel approach in applying the IAD framework to understand the factors that aid and impede the development of effective co-creation. The framework demonstrates its efficacy in assessing both the process of co-creation and its outcomes. The IAD Framework was applied on qualitative data in the form of interviews and archival data from co-creation participants in four pilot cities that are part of the EU-Interreg 2 Seas Sustainable Heating Implementation of Fossil-Free Technologies project. Results show that supportive project management conditions such as stable funding, comprehensive planning support and the involvement of key stakeholders (actors) across the different stages of co-creation are vital for its success. The presence of community attributes such as shared values and goals motivate stakeholders to collaborate together. When actors who adopt the role of coordinators view co-creation favourably, they can use their administrative skills and social capital to bring together stakeholders in an effective manner to find solutions acceptable to all. Involvement of key actors in the initial planning stages is important to develop strategies that are tailored to specific communities. The presence of neutral actors such as research institutes is helpful across all stages and was shown to be vital in initiating co-creative strategies and facilitating supportive conditions for social learning. Furthermore, this study found that pre-existing governance structures between interacting stakeholders determines the pathway in which co-creation evolves. Pre-existing power dynamics, combined with the crucial role played by coordinators in the group, form patterns of interaction that tend to reinforce governance structures that do not allow for effective co-creation. Policymakers may benefit from the following recommendations - a) coordinators must commit to involving key stakeholders, including citizens, in all phases of co-creation; b) when co-creation is initiated by actors who are traditionally in authoritative positions in society, provisions must be made for capacity-building in other stakeholder groups. This study focuses on co-creation pathways when initiated by actors traditionally in powerful roles, in liberal democracies in Western Europe. Future research can focus on co-creation pathways when initiated in a bottom-up fashion. The development of co-creation in different political and societal settings merits further research.

According to the Dutch Climate Agreement, each municipality has to formulate its heating transition vision strategy by the end of 2021. In the strategy, each municipality has to show how it will make its municipality natural gas-free, specifies the technology that will be implemented and describes the timeline for each of its neighborhoods. This will be a major challenge for municipalities , which will need public support to accomplish this. The role of citizens is considered essential for the heating transition. Co-creation provides an opportunity for this problem, in which citizens are not only participating in the process, but have also become the initiator and designer of the process. The heating transition is a complex process, which stretches beyond the local level at multiple governance levels. The heating transition setting is very complex and polycentric, where multiple actors and different governments at multiple levels are involved. The polycentric governance perspective will be proposed for this study. Polycentric governance is a system, in which multiple public and private parties interact with each other to decide on a specific geographical location through a system of negotiated rules and norms to solve a problem efficiently with multiple semi-autonomous centers of decision making.

Onshore wind farms play an important role in realizing the 2030 climate targets. According to the Climate Agreement, onshore energy production should be increased to 35 TWh by 2030. This means that up to 600 additional wind turbines should be developed, which is a challenging task. The development of onshore wind farms often meets the resistance of local residents. This opposition can, inter alia, result in project delays or cancellations. Citizen participation is a widely discussed manner to prevent and deal with local opposition. In this thesis, exploratory qualitative analysis is conducted to address the following research question: How does citizen participation influence decision-making processes of four selected Dutch onshore wind farms? The present research focuses on the interaction between the most important actors within the participation process: local residents, the government, and the wind farm initiators. A multiple-case study is conducted to analyse the decision-making processes and to answer the main research question. Four Dutch cases are analysed; Jaap Rodenburg II, Nij Hiddum-Houw, Windplanblauw and Wind Farm Moerdijk. First, each case was studied separately by conducting four within case studies. Afterwards, the analyses have been compared in a cross-case study. The theoretical framework, Teisman's Rounds Model and Contextual Interaction Theory (CIT), were used to code qualitative data in a thematic analysis. The data is collected by conducting semi-structured interviews conducted and studying policy documents. This way, citizen participation, decision-making processes, and the actors' roles could be described meticulously. The findings of the analyses are presented in the Rounds Model and the CIT. The Rounds Model is used to graphically represent the decision-making processes and the role of the actors. Since the Rounds Model pays little attention to contextual factors and governance levels affecting the decision-making process, the CIT contributes to the Rounds Model. As mentioned before, the CIT and the Rounds Model functioned as a theoretical framework to conduct the cross-case study. The Rounds model facilitated a comparison of the four participation and decision-making processes. The rounds model has provided information about the interrelation of the decisions made, the relation between actors, the intensity of the participation rounds and the most influential moments at a glance. The CIT is used to study the most important participation rounds more in-depth and provided information about governance and other contextual factors influencing those events. The combination of the two models led to a broad understanding of the decision-making processes and an in-depth insight into the factors of influence. The analyses have shown that citizen participation is used to equally distribute benefits and burdens of winds farms, reduce nuisance, convince the responsible authority that the interests of local residents are considered, improve the wind farm design, and reduce local opposition. Multiple forms of citizen participation are found in the decision-making processes: wind farm cooperatives and associations, options for financial investment, community funds, design workshops, surveys about the wind farm layout, working groups and advisory boards. In all of the cases studies, local opposition led to a more intensive citizen participation process. The different forms of participation, as described above, have led to the re-location of wind turbines, a reduction of the turbine height, additional nuisance reducing measures, additional financial benefits and once even to a totally new wind farm layout. Several factors were discerned to stimulate the decision-making process. Especially co-ownership, representativeness of the participating local residents and early engagement have improved the citizen participation process. Additionally, a stringent policy and an independent party to advise local residents during the participation process can facilitate efficient decision-making. Therefore, it is recommended to 1) the initiators and the responsible authority to immediately start the citizen participation process, 2) actively invite local residents of all surrounding districts to the participation process, 3) provide local residents with an option for co-ownership, 4) the municipalities and provinces to define clear participation in policy documents on before, and 5) to ensure local residents have an independent advisor during the participation process. Lastly, several subjects for further research are identified. First of all, it would be interesting to combine or compare the findings of the four cases with findings from other studies developed by different parties. Here, additional knowledge can be collected that can be used to investigate potential influencing factors further as identified here; the influence of the responsible authority and the room for negotiation. Above all, it should be studied how to ensure a representation of local residents and how to interest local residents to participate in an early stage. And, how will participation influence the decision-making process in the new situation: where the Climate Agreement, the RES and the new Environment and Planning Act are guiding.

In the last couple of years there have been many different Protocols, Accords and Agreements to combat climate change, being the Paris Agreement the last global effort to unite countries for this common cause. However, regardless of these pledges, efforts, and commitments, they are not enough to keep the average rise of global temperature under 2 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels. At the COP21, cities were recognized as key actors in the fight against climate change because of their ability to combine national with local level approaches. In a multi-level system, the increased interconnectedness and competencies among these actors allow the subnational actors to increase their representativeness in central policy processes. The emergence of city climate networks, which are thought to be governing global and local climate action, reflects this multi-level nature and its dynamics. The increased interconnectedness and polycentric governance have allowed local communities to engage in climate mitigation and adaptation policy processes, considered to be a key factor for the success of global, regional and local climate actions.