To cope with the current problems in the construction industry, project managers and scholars seek new methods to turn the tide. Many scholars blame traditional management approaches for cost overruns and delays occurring in current projects. To find solutions, project managers introduce tools from various sectors that have coped with similar problems before, such as the IT and manufacturing sectors. Scheduling has been found to be a main reason for delays and cost overruns. Traditionally, scheduling is done before projects start. Predictions are made for durations, costs and required resources. Project managers impose schedules on subcontractors and apply pressure to prevent delays or cost overruns. This method is characterized by a reactive approach to problems. Short-cyclic scheduling is more appropriate for complex projects than traditional scheduling. Short-cyclic scheduling tools allow operational personnel to schedule their own tasks. This gives them the flexibility to detect problems quickly and act proactively. Besides, recent knowledge from the work floor is applied directly to the schedule. Furthermore, A benefit of short-cyclic scheduling is the possibility to proactively cope with changing top-down requirements and circumstances. Most short-cyclic scheduling tools originate from the IT and manufacturing sectors. However, construction projects during the realization phase differ from IT and manufacturing projects. Which raises the question if construction projects during the realization phase are appropriate for short-cyclic scheduling. Scholars have investigated implementations of such tools but have not clearly formulated criteria for short-cyclic scheduling in ongoing projects. To find these criteria the following research question is formulated: What determines the appropriateness for short-cyclic scheduling of construction projects in the realization phase? The determination of a project’s appropriateness started with a literature study on short-cyclic implementation in construction projects. The literature study resulted in theoretical conditions for appropriate short-cyclic implementation. The theoretical conditions were used as a framework to observe scheduling sessions and to interview project members in two construction projects. The theoretical conditions were a means to structurally investigate problems and success factors in the two projects. The case studies resulted in a list of critical project factors for appropriateness, depicted in Figure 1. These critical factors can be considered the tipping point for a project’s appropriateness. If a project does not possess these factors it is unrealistic to expect a successful short-cyclic implementation.

The construction sector owns a bad reputation in terms of performing on time and within budget. The inherent characteristics of large construction projects of complexity and uncertainty play an essential role in such deviations. While current project management and risk management approaches cannot fully predict, prevent, and enable the successful conquering of disruptions, the resilience-based project management approach seems like a promising solution. However, the resilience concept is still new in the construction industry and few literature works tackled this area with low consensus. Whereas in practice, the concept is still not explicitly used. It is not clear yet what constitutes a resilient construction project and what elements contribute towards resilience. Therefore, this research aims to understand the resilience concept at the level of a construction project, uncover the elements contributing to building resilience and introduce these in one solid framework that aids in building, evaluating and enhancing resilience in construction projects. Based on an inductive approach this research resulted in a framework, the PRL resilience framework for construction projects, based on theory and practice. To build the framework, related literature work was reviewed, and 16 interviews with professionals experienced in complex construction projects (infrastructure projects) were interviewed. For evaluation, the framework for three study cases and was found acceptable to satisfactory. The framework consists of 87 elements assigned into three dimensions (proactiveness, reactive capacities, and learning), and 15 related project management areas: Client management, stakeholder management, monitoring and control, partners, mother organization, risk management, project manager, project team, schedule management, change management, contract management, project management approach, information management, tender management and design management. The resilience of a construction project can be defined then as the ability of a construction project to overcome disruptive events (preserve its well-functioning and ability to perform to achieve expected targets) fast and without bypassing the current most valuable project objectives thresholds, enabled by proactiveness (Awareness, anticipation, alertness), reactive capacities (absorptive, adaptive, recovery), and learning. Main future research work related to the resilience of construction projects is suggested as follows: (1) further research towards identifying the weights of each resilience element, (2) link project complexity elements (suggested using TOE framework by Bosch-Rekveldt et al. (2011)), to be used to design and tailor resilience elements from the PRL framework based on project-specific complexity scan, (3) Applying the PRL framework to different types of projects, (4) Investigating the concept of resilience on portfolio level and program levels.

Natural disasters, related to water, in various forms have become more common in our daily lives and on our television screens. Within the past years, flooding has become a phenomenon which affects global, social, psychological and economic development. In Ghana there are major problems related to water and this has increased substantially over the years. Indeed, flooding is a major issue that is evident in urban sub-Saharan Africa and Ghana is no exception to this worrying phenomenon. Poor and inadequate infrastructure and urban drainage systems have increased the risk of flooding in Accra, a city that has had an exponential increase in population. Flooding has affected the economy of Ghana, claimed the lives of humans and animals and has caused the outbreak of infectious diseases. However, current flood risk management approaches in Accra, which include demolishing affected buildings, have not been effective enough to reduce the impacts of Ghana’s floods. This paper analyzes the current situation in Accra, the capital of Ghana, relating to floods, the factors that played a role in aggravating its effects, and how communities respond to flooding events. This is a main challenge Accra is dealing with and it is therefore imperative to look at the causes of flooding in Ghana as a country and propose an approach that can help mitigate the impact of floods. The challenge is to develop strategies for dealing specifically with increased vulnerability to flooding in order to reduce economic effects and save human lives, animals and properties. The study area consists of five local suburbs of Accra namely Agbogbloshie, Old Fadama, Adabraka, Weija and Alajo, which have been affected by floods. The effect of floods can be observed in an increased amount of flood events in these communities. This thesis therefore uses the concept of resilience as the basis in solving this problem. The problem is defined using literature review, a case study, field inspections and interviews. Resilience at multi-level governance level is studied using an analytical framework to examine what policies government authorities have adopted to stimulate the adaptation of Accra into a more flood resilient urban environment. The changes need to be implemented to improve upon the flaws are also studied. The challenges involved in multi-level governance of Flood Risk Management in Ghana from the perspectives of the various actors are also examined. This will help in filling the knowledge gap in the literature on multi-level governance arrangements and the challenges involved for Ghana in the context of Flood Risk Management. To do this, a case study approach in which the interactions between the actors, stakeholders and the policy instruments are looked at, is applied. The analytical framework is derived from the work of the five elements of flood risk management of Batica et al. (2013) and the two types of multi-level governance defined by Hooghe and Marks (2003). The findings from the analytical framework include key stakeholders in flood risk management as well as aspects of resilience and response and anticipation in flood risk management. Aspects of resilience in flood risk management strategies comprise Relief, Resist, Response, Recovery and Reflect strategies. The findings are used to analyze the effectiveness of existing strategies and recommend improvements. There are measures for resisting known flood risks, but their implementation is ineffective. Involvement of the local chiefs and key private sector organizations in flood risk management strategies in Accra would allow for advanced resilience regarding their responses to the impacts of land-use changes and the waste disposal in watercourses. This research shows that the effectiveness of flood risk management in Accra depends on implementation and enforcement.

A trend towards a more relational type of contracting can be noticed in the Dutch infrastructure industry. These so-called relational project delivery models are supposed to deal with the current challenges of regular cost and time overruns, the growing demand and the adverse relationship between contractor and client in traditional projects, leading to an unfair risk allocation, lack of collaboration and lots of conflicts. One of these measures proposed by RWS is the introduction of the two-phase model. For specifically the first phase it is unclear how the collaboration can be improved and how a collaborative identity might contribute. The research question therefore is: How could the first phase of the two-phase model in infrastructure projects in the Netherlands be organized to improve collaboration and how does the formation of a collaborative identity contribute to this? A further operationalization of collaborative identity resulted in a definition: An identity within the project that distinguishes the organization and contributes to a collaborative mindset in the project organization. Improved collaboration can be achieved by implementing certain principles in the project by the organization of specific working practices. These working practices and principles were gathered from different streams of literature such as the alliance, early contractor involvement and bouwteam models. The principles are scored on their importance to collaboration in the first phase of the two phase model and the working practices were scored on their contribution to achieving the principles. This resulted in a framework identifying the most important principles and working practices. This framework was then discussed with two separate focus groups from the contractor and the client. The comments and discussion was used to update and improve the framework. The framework is found in figure A. The most important conclusions were to apply the framework in a so called project start up. Furthermore a shared vision and objectives related to the project are important for the two-phase model, as two organizations should collaborate intensively in the first phase, while the price is not yet set. Involving the right people who can work in this ‘new’ way in the project is vital, and the price should be constructed using open book, and avoiding fixed price elements in the tender phase. Finally it is concluded that the collaboration in any project should be an active project goal. This means that effort should be made to evaluate, discuss and reward behaviour resulting in good collaboration. The conclusions indicate the importance of a collaborative identity to the collaboration in the first phase of the two phase model and this was also specifically confirmed by the participants of the focus group. For future research it is recommended to perform more research on collaborative identity. Secondly more research should be performed on the two-phase model, when the projects have been finished, also relating to the success of the overall project. Finally research on the collaboration in the second phase and the transition from the first to the second phase should be performed.

Despite of extensive and systematic usage of ‘Lag’ type of performance metrics, Large Infrastructure Projects (LIPs) often struggle in achieving the intended performance and frequently tend to be overbudget & delivered late. This research investigates Key ‘Lead’ Indicators (KLIs) and provides suggestions on how to measure and influence them in the future large rail infrastructure projects. These ‘Lead’ Indicators are forward-looking performance metrics, unlike the ‘Lag’ indicators, and can forecast the deviation in the project performance at an early stage. Building on existing insights from theory on lead indicators, it asks: How can Key Lead Indicators be used to improve project performance of inner-city rail infrastructure projects across Europe? The research is performed through a combination of mixed qualitative research methods including literature review, case studies and an expert consultation meeting. From the literature review, it is observed that all the identified lead indicators tend towards negative aspects or events in a project. However, the research considered the indicators to be neutral which can help to forecast both positive and negative aspects of a project. The results of the literature review reveal that Design Change, Communication, Decision Making, Level of Experience, Mood, Attitude, Commitment, Conflicts, Trust, Criticism and certain External indicators are the most important and frequently repeated KLIs. Based on the literature results and three case studies each one from Sweden, Netherlands and Austria respectively, interviewees from each case are asked to respond to the questions framed in order to identify the KLIs from practice. The results of the analysis confirm that almost all KLIs observed from literature are similarly observed in practice. Level of Experience of the project personnel and Close Stakeholder Engagement are found to be the most frequently repeating KLIs across all the projects. It is concluded that in order to improve the performance of future LIPs, the identified KLIs should be responded at the earliest by measuring and influencing them. Broadly, more attention should be paid on improving the recruitment process, prioritizing client’s requirements, empowering stakeholders, improving personal relationships and creating positive project environments. A detailed set of recommendations is provided as starting points to enable the required change. This research contributes to scientific knowledge of lead indicators in project management by enriching the concepts of KLIs and discovering steps to measure and influence them. It also contributes to practical knowledge in the industry by identifying the Lead Indicators large construction projects.

Structured interviews and 5 case studies on the misalignment of client and consultant's expectations of CM in Industrial EPCM projects, and limitations in practice. Thesis is concluded with recommendations in order to bridge the misalignment.

This thesis researched the possible use of agile project management for infrastructure project through the use of a serious research game. The thesis showed that there are different serious games and created a serious research game. By playing the serious research game with agile and traditional project management experts a hypothesis was created to use agile project management in the realisation of infrastructure projects. It showed that by using agile thinking at the start of project conception stakeholders are more seen as design experts. By using a minimal viable design and frequent collaboration and communication with the stakeholders a design is made through iterations. This design is than build.

Opportunity Management is a well-defined concept in the field of project management. However, at the same time, opportunity management is not practised very well. Under risk management, threats and opportunities are identified and managed. In practise, opportunities are overlooked while threats receive more attention. Numerous barriers to the practical use of opportunity management have been identified by researchers. Eight of the twelve barriers were found to be connected to organisational procedures and competencies. This study looked at competencies and took advice from entrepreneurs in an effort to overcome such barriers. This study aims to shed light on project managers' and entrepreneurs' perspectives on the competencies that could facilitate practising opportunity management and identify solutions to enhance opportunity management. Project managers' and entrepreneurs' perspectives were compared using the Q-methodology. Q-analysis resulted in low cumulative explained variance (42%). The similarities and differences between the perspectives of project managers and entrepreneurs were examined in light of the Q-analysis findings. Entrepreneurial or shared competencies, such opportunity (s10), creativity (s4), and leadership (s8), received the highest overall ratings. The lowest rated competencies, in comparison, are self-management (s26), governance, structure, and processes (s7), and compliance, standards, and regulations (s2). Business developers entering a project in the conceptualisation phase found resourcefulness (s22), vision (s34) and personal communication (s12) more important. Whereas project managers are involved in the execution phase of a project, they found negotiation (s9), time (s33) and procurement (s16) more critical for opportunity management. Project managers' and business developers' differing perspectives are the result of (1) their involvement in different stages of the project and (2) their different project roles. The difference in opinion can be overcome by increasing coherence between project managers and business developers. Project managers need to move their focal point to business oriented by fostering opportunities in alignment with the project portfolio, and opportunities in the direction of the project portfolio will help deliver portfolio benefits. According to this research, it is advised to involve the project manager in the project's conceptualization stage, and the business developer must continue to be involved during the project's initial execution stage. It will give both parties the chance to look at one another's work, gather ideas from one another, and develop a market opportunity that is viable enough to take advantage of. To identify opportunities, project managers must consider organisational strategy and portfolio benefits. Project managers should foster an environment where team members who are working in isolation can communicate and exchange ideas with people from different disciplines. Project managers need to educate their team members more about opportunity management, organisational strategy, and portfolio benefits.

Construction projects are filled with uncertainty. Such projects are becoming more complex: Many different interrelated aspects that are subject to change play a role in the delivery of construction work. This makes it interesting to know what exactly is uncertain in these projects, and what can be done to manage uncertainty. The aim of this research is to explore what aspects of complex construction projects are uncertain and what project management teams of public clients do to manage uncertainty before it impacts projects. Four complex construction projects were studied at two large public clients in the Netherlands: Rijksvastgoedbedrijf and Rijkswaterstaat. A total of 17 interviews were carried out across the project teams of these cases. A literature study was conducted to provide a theoretical basis of uncertainty in complex projects and approaches for the management of uncertainty. Uncertainty can be present in eight aspects: Objectives, methods, market, resources, stakeholders, contract, technology and environment. And managing uncertainty can be done in three ways: Learning, representing complexity and selectionism. The results show a variety of uncertainties present in those projects: all eight aspects were found to involve uncertainty in the cases. What especially appears as a challenge is the state of objects in renovation projects. This was a significant uncertainty that played a role in three renovation cases. Interestingly, project teams know before the start of the project that this is an uncertainty, but still face surprises during the execution phase. In addition, objectives, stakeholders and environment were uncertain in most of the cases. Given this broad spectrum of uncertainties, what do project teams do to prepare for this? Public clients mainly use approaches that represent the complexity of the project. They do this mainly by using organizational structures that focus on collaboration and integration. Organizational structures are utilized to facilitate joint risk management between the contractor and the public client. In addition, other approaches are used to represent complexity. Uncertainties are identified and discussed in a project development process to develop new project-specific knowledge. Decision-makers are often involved to increase the decision power of the project team or to escalate matters that are beyond influence of the project team. And lastly, project teams often focus on financial reserves and creating cohesion between project parties to prepare for unforeseen situations. learning is the second most used approach to prepare for uncertainty. It is mainly used in the renovation projects that were studied, where experiments at the site, use of mockups off site and pilots are introduced to learn about the interaction between the construction method, the object and the environment. The findings show that public clients manage a variety of uncertainties through the representation of complexity in the project organization and by learning. Selectionism was not used in the cases, and it is not clear to which extent selectionism is viable in complex construction projects. Based on the literature, it is recommendable for public clients to use integrated project teams to manage complex construction projects.

Despite large scale application of performance- and risk management practices, project organisations struggle with responding adequately to early warning signs of project problems. This research investigates the main barriers in responding to early warning signs, and provides recommendations on how to deal with them, in order to stimulate the responsiveness to early warning signs. It is approached by a combination of mixed qualitative research methods including expert interviews, expert meetings and a case study. The results show that soft factors are underrepresented in applied project control methods. Furthermore, experts regard optimism bias, time pressure, project complexity and uncertainty avoidance as the most important barriers in responding to early warning signs. Also, the results demonstrate the occurrence and functioning of barriers in three rail projects in the Netherlands. It is concluded that in order to improve the ability to respond to EW signs, more attention should be paid to soft, managerial aspects, and the presence of barriers in responding should be taken actively into account. The responsiveness to EW signs is stimulated by taking more and effective time for reflection, by be stimulating and facilitating communication on early warning signs, and changing behaviour in decision-making in projects. The soft character of early warning signs and barriers, both occurring throughout the project environment, shows that cultural change in projects is necessary to achieve this. A set of recommendations is provided as starting points to facilitate the required change. This research contributes to scientific knowledge of early signs in project management by enriching the concepts of early warning signs and barriers in responding. It also contributes to practical knowledge in the industry by demonstrating the occurrence of barriers in construction projects.

Construction projects have become more complex over time, and cost overruns and time delays have become a global phenomenon. Signs that can indicate future project failure, such as cost overruns and time delays, in early project phases are Early Warning (EW) signs. EW signs are defined as indicators for potential future problems. This research investigates mechanisms that influence the response to EW signs in construction projects. Directions for solutions to mitigate the obstructions for responding to EW signs found in this research are also provided. This research provides a new perspective compared to current literature, by conducting research from the perspective of a contractor, including the interaction with subcontractors. Previous studies focused on the client’s perspective instead. This qualitative research uses a combination of research methods including an in-depth case study on the EW response of three constructions projects, expert interviews and an expert meeting. Data analysis in this research uses grounded theory methodology, and combines organisational behaviour theory with the topic of EW signs. Two main mechanisms influencing the EW response were found: (1) the lack of information flow in projects seems to prevent EW signs from being identified, and (2) group culture and team interaction were found to hinder the response to EW signs in projects. A third mechanism was found as a recurring theme impacting three out of four analysed EW responses: interpretations of agreements and contracts, and trust in the work carried out by other parties seem to reduce the activity of identifying and responding to EW signs. To mitigate the obstructions for identifying and responding to EW signs found in this research, the following directions for solutions are concluded to show potential: attention for individual characteristics in team composition, equipping the information system in projects with accessible options to store, and keep track of potential EW signs during projects, increasing the attention to EW signs during the tender phase, and creating awareness of the importance of responding to EW signs in project teams.

The increased complexity and changes in collaboration between involved actors in the realization of large infrastructure projects (LIP’s) cause major challenges. One of these challenges entails meeting stakeholders’ requirements through verification and validation (V&V) during the design phase. Coordinating the design with the stakeholders can easily lead to delays or bad relationships. The V&V process originates from systems engineering (SE) and it seems that an attempt is being made to reduce the complexity by performing the V&V process in a systematic way. However, various researchers indicate that there is a need for interaction and it is doubted if this need for interaction is taken into account in this SE approach. The V&V process half-heartedly relates to stakeholder management (SM) while they seem to be a good fit. It is expected that a successful performance of SM can fill this need for interaction in the complex environment of LIP’s. Therefore, this research sought an answer to the question: How can stakeholder management help to improve the verification and validation of the stakeholders’ requirements during the design phase of large infrastructure projects in the Netherlands? Through a literature study into SM, an evaluation tool is formulated consisting of four core values. These values are: setting goals together, assessing stakeholders, involving stakeholders in the decision-making, and continuously interacting with stakeholders. A case-study approach is used to allow a deeper understanding of the application of SM in relation to the V&V process during the design phase in practice. Through semi-structured interviews, based on the evaluation tool, the perspectives of contractors, clients, and stakeholders on SM in relation to the V&V process were investigated. Conclusively, the findings from the three cases were compared based on different themes to gain an understanding of the role SM plays in relation to the V&V process. Setting goals together, appears to be truly important in relation to the V&V process. Respondents believe that by setting goals together, parties involved become more aware of the underlying interests and concerns behind the requirements of the project and thus get a better picture of the purpose of the requirements. Consequently, it brings parties closer together from the start. Furthermore, continuously interacting with stakeholders during the process in an open way is important as this creates support among stakeholders. Through this, the contractor must discuss the progress of the design by reflecting on the overall picture and not only on the problems that arise. The stakeholders, but the client as well, find it very meaningful to be thoroughly informed about the reasoning behind the design choices of the contractor. This applies to involving stakeholders in the decision-making as well. The current way in which the stakeholders and the client actually participate in making decisions seems sufficient on condition that stakeholders and client are sufficiently informed about the motives of the contractor. In the context of the studied cases, assessing stakeholders does not appear to be important in the V&V process of the design phase. This research has not identified a clear correlation between the performance of the V&V process and a contractor or a client who is carrying out the SM related to the V&V process, the degree of collaboration seems much more important. Both the contractor and the client have substantial resources that are required to coordinate the design with the stakeholders and they have a common interest in monitoring the contract. Therefore, it is the interest of both of them to enter into good collaboration in managing the stakeholders in relation to the V&V process. The ambiguity of the V&V process is recognized in practice as well, where the contractor and client struggle to find a more SE-driven approach or a more SM-driven approach. The context in which the process takes place determines which approach is more effective. There are several directions for further research. First of all, this research uses an evaluation tool based on research into SM focusing on LIP’s in general. Therefore, this research can be seen as an exploratory study into SM specifically aimed at the V&V process. It is recommended to conduct follow-up research into further testing and specifying the evaluation tool. Furthermore, this research shows that there is a tension in the V&V process regarding monitoring the contract. Further research into contract management in relation to the V&V process is recommended as well. Based on the evaluation tool, this research has made recommendations for determining an SM strategy in relation to the V&V process. Since every V&V process takes place in a different context, no unambiguous advice can be given. However, this research has shown that setting goals together and continuously interacting with stakeholders are both very important for the performance of the V&V process, regardless of the conditions of the process.

Sustainability is becoming more important in our society. One of the actions for a sustainable future is starting an energy transition for the reduction of greenhouse gases. For realising this transition, local energy cooperatives are initiated. Within these local energy cooperatives, a collective of citizens is willing to generate and distribute renewable energy. For the development of these projects, a collaboration with the municipality is needed. However, there are barriers within this collaboration that withholds the collaboration to become sustainable. These barriers are defined as: (1) the attitude of the municipality, (2) the group dynamics and group composition of the local energy cooperative, and (3) the ignorance of the two parties. The objective of this research is understanding and designing a process for both municipalities and local energy cooperatives which facilitates their collaboration. Therefore, the main research question is: How can municipalities and local energy cooperatives improve their collaboration to facilitate the energy transition? For answering this question, a literature study is executed regarding the concept of local energy cooperatives, collaboration, governance arrangements, intermediaries, and theoretical perspectives on transition. Insights from these subjects together form the theoretical framework for the rest of the research. A concept of design thinking, the Double Diamond method, is used for the development of the design. This method consists of four stages: Discover, Define, Develop, and Deliver. The method is divided into two diamonds, these diamonds are based on the concepts of divergent and convergent thinking. The first diamond is focussed on defining the problem by executing a literature study, three case studies, and verification interviews. The second diamond is focussed on developing a design by studying other areas and sectors. Together with the insights from the first diamond, this study forms the input for a design. This design is validated in an online survey by the participants of the interviews.

Currently there is an energy transition from fossil fuels towards zero emission fuels within the marine sector. In addition to this, improvements are made in system design with regard to standardization of which allows for variation. The combination of these two improvements is found in the EU H2020 NAVAIS project which focuses on customer tailored vessels in combination with a standardized and modularized approach. The specific objective is to use modularity to help support the development of zero-emission propulsion methods for a ferry. The objective is fulfilled by answering the main question of this research: “How can the energy carrier and conversion system of a ferry be made environmentally friendly and modular and how does the inclusion of low emission and modularity objectives impact the power supply and total design of the ferry?” In the approach a Systems Engineering approach is used, including the V-cycle or the RFLP approach. In this approach the design is approached by the elaboration of the Requirements, Functionalities, Logical design and the Physical design. Based on the main vessel requirements, research requirements are defined as well which are the system’s ability to be: future proof, modular, fulfilling the energy and power requirements, the ability to be refitted and technical feasible. A platform approach is defined, which is called a platform approach, and for this research includes: The top-down approach, the common-core approach the design approaches combined in the platform approach are practically applied by using a design support tool which is the Design Structure Matrix. The DSM and specifically the clustering algorithm has the goal to find modules based on minimizing interactions between modules. This is done based on the logical or technical decomposition where only the sub-systems are included in the matrix. The interactions between the sub-systems are defined using a binary definition. The clustering algorithm is used where random groups of sub-systems, named clusters or potential modules, are formed which then are evaluated based on the interactions and parameters to control the size and interactions between the clusters. Simulated annealing is used to optimize the solutions in combination of multiple runs for the defined system configurations. In this way interchangeable modules can be defined which can be used for the diesel generator, dual fuel and fuel cell configuration. The multiple solutions are merged into combined potential modules after which the results are evaluated. The evaluation is done based on the number of interactions, the technical feasibility and physical evaluation of the modules and finally based on the ability to standardize the interactions of the module. These steps result in a suggestion of modules which are interchangeable and are based on a minimization of interactions between or outside the modules. While leaving the ability to extend the method to allow for new alternative fuel systems.

Most of the large infrastructure projects (LIPs) are characterized with significant time delays and cost overruns. In order to be able to deploy the LIPs more effectively, make optimal use of the resources and investments and timely deliver the projects NETLIPSE was set up. NETLIPSE developed a project assessment tool called the Infrastructure Project Assessment Tool (IPAT) which helps in evaluating and assessing the LIPs to identify the vulnerabilities present and measure the capability of the project at all stages of its development and delivery. The IPAT assessments provide valuable insights to client organizations to improve their project performance. With the IPAT tool, several infrastructure projects in Europe were assessed. Since the data of the individual IPATs is owned by different clients, no thorough comparisons were made so far. The goal of the research was to identify learnings from assessment reports that can be used for improving future infrastructure projects by thoroughly comparing the data obtained from individual IPATs. Additionally, the effectiveness of the tool and the theoretical basis of the assessment tool was evaluated. Five common elements were identified i.e., themes and scores, the context of the project, learning environment, knowledge exchange and the significance of reflection. The IPAT includes all these elements which were also deemed vital in the project assessment tools that were researched. Thus, the elements identified served as an essential basis on which project performance was measured. The IPAT assessments aid in the exchange of knowledge in the form of best practices and lessons learned in the field of project management in order to efficiently deploy LIPs. The research identified five main learnings from the IPAT assessments that can be used for improving future large infrastructure projects. They are- • The best practices and lessons learned in the field of project management are continuously evolving with time. Being aware of these evolvements is vital for the execution of projects. • The best practices in the field of project management have broadened to include the overall context of the project and not just focus on the technical aspects. • The opportunity to improve the project’s performance, progress, the processes involved, and outcomes/deliverables exist in all project phases. • The IPAT assessments promote knowledge exchange. This gives the project management team an opportunity to adopt some of the best practices and customize them according to the requirements of their respective projects. • The IPAT assessments gives the project team an opportunity to take a step back, review the project and learn from it. Continuous learning from projects facilitates better execution of the upcoming phases or future projects.

Since the introduction of Best Price Quality Ratio (BPQR) tendering, specific (non-financial) tender elements in the bid can also be decisive for winning the tender. These so-called qualitative aspects are therefore important means in the tender to distinguish a bid from competing bids. Although competition is believed to enhance a fair quality price ratio in the tender phase, this study points out that safeguarding the competition principle throughout the execution phase is not guaranteed. It turns out, added value of a measure in the execution phase, does not always coincide with the promised value in the bid (=misalignment). The objective of this research was to determine to what extent distinctive tender elements are aligned with added value during or after project execution for projects procured with the BPQR tender procedure. Besides, the aim was to define what underlying mechanisms in the BPQR tender process are causing eventual (mis)alignment. In this regard, the following research question has been drawn: What underlying mechanisms cause (mis)alignment between distinctive BPQR tender elements and the actual added value during or after project execution? Three research phases are being distinguished in this investigation: the exploration, the analysis (consisting of phase A and phase B) and lastly the synthesis. The exploration phase involved a literature study in which the aim was to gain full understanding of the theoretical aspects surrounding the topic of research. It was found that misalignment is mainly perceived as both disadvantageous for the client as well as for the losing bidders. As a result, the current focus is on alignment between tender and practice. This explains initiatives like SMART formulation of measures and the introduction of fines for non-fulfilment. Even new ‘out of the box’ ideas emerge like involving the losing bidders of the tender in auditing the execution of the project . All these approaches aim at maximising alignment, assuming misalignment would be disadvantageous for the client. The first phase of the analysis involved the analysis of the BAM Infra tender results. This analysis is used to create a general image of the tenders on which BAM Infra did perform outstanding and thus was able to distinguish itself. Furthermore, this analysis enables a proper selection of the tenders to conduct the case study research. The second phase of the analysis therefore explores the impact of quality aspects, bothin the tendering as well as in the execution phase of a project. This second phase involves a case study on four strategically selected projects regarding the distinctive character of the tender bid for each project. Subsequently, the study assesses how these elements turn out in practice, by conducting interviews with both the client and the contractor. The first finding is that measures can be divided in four quadrants: 1. Measure not implemented; effect not achieved (Q1) 2. Measure not implemented; effect nonetheless achieved (Q2) 3. Measure implemented; effect not achieved (Q3) 4. Measure implemented; effect achieved (Q4) Only measures in the fourth quadrant are examples of alignment, since in those examples both the implementation and the effect are aligned with the original promise formulated in the bid. Literature refers to, among other causes, strategic behaviour of contractors (adverse selection, moral hazard and strategic misrepresentation) as the cause of misalignment between tender and practice. The researcher did however identify four main causes for misalignment: Change of situation (A), enhanced / new insights (B), strategic behaviour (C) and bad luck (D). Subsequently, the total set of measures determining the distinctive character of the bid has been analysed. Resulting from this analysis, the researcher composed a categorization and a list of characteristics that measures can have. The categorization is both Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhausting (MECE) and it involves a distinction between process vs. product measures and temporary vs.permanent measures. Furthermore, the researcher did formulate seven characteristics. These characteristics are not MECE, which implies one measure can have multiple characteristics and the list might not necessarily be limited to the seven characteristics listed below. Ø Integral measures Ø Performance measures Ø Technical specification Ø Sexy measures Ø Beads (Dutch: Spiegels en kraaltjes) Ø Commercial-off-the-shelf measures Ø Multi-applicable measures Thereafter, the measures are mapped in the quadrants and subsequently analysed on commonalities. It was found that although their abundance in the set of most distinctive measures is roughly equal, product measures are more frequently implemented and more often achieve the intended effect than process measures. Furthermore, it turned out that measures that are not implemented whilst the effect is achieved, are always process measures. However, most process measures involved concerned situations in which the added value was absent. Besides, temporary measures are most coincide with process measures and, hence, score for the majority similar with these process measures (measures not implemented prevail). Temporary measures are less often implemented than permanent ones. Also, performance measures seemed to be the perfect measures in order to achieve alignment. Nevertheless, the room for distinguishing on this type of measures is questionable. But since the promised effect is very likely to be achieved by these measures, criteria of high importance of the clients could best be formulated as a performance measure. Commercial-off-the-shelf measures are preferred by contractors since they are easy to implement and are proven concepts. Yet, the clients state that these measures do not add value, since they would also have been conducted anyway. Sexy measures come with a large reputational risk for the client. This also relates to the responsibility public authorities have: generating public value. If public expenditures do not generate the value expected; public authorities will encounter social discontent. Based on the findings of this research, the following conclusions are drawn that answer the main research question: What underlying mechanisms cause (mis)alignment between distinctive BPQR tender elements and the actual added value during or after project execution? This research pointed out several causes for misalignment, of which strategic behaviour is one category. Strategic behaviour does however not dominate. It was however found that presumably, changes of circumstances are stimulating strategic behaviour of contractors. Issues underlying causes of misalignment are amongst others: multi-headedness of both the client as well as the contractor; lack of full-openness (of both parties) during the competitive dialogue and the use of inappropriate criteria to mitigate future maintenance costs in a construction contract. This results in misunderstanding, or a lack of (correct) information. In this respect it was learned that higher similarity in team composition (i.e.linking pin principle) between tendering and execution phase, can avoid loss of background information on important measures in a project. The research did also reveal that alignment is no holy grail. The focus on alignment not always generates value. Of the identified causes for misalignment, several cases are found in which fulfilment of the measure appeared to be disadvantageous for the client (!). This is especially the case when new insights occur and unforeseen added value appears. Yet, this study reveals that in those cases the specific measure involved often is not implemented. So, client satisfaction can also be achieved in case of misalignment. Although important, alignment is no cure for contractual discussions. A rigid focus on alignment may even have a negative impact on the provided added value for the client (and thus a negative impact on public value). Discussions whether measures are righteously implemented or not, consume time. And time – delay – means money. Given the fact that most clients are public bodies, this would involve loss of taxpayer’s money. In addition, rigid focus on alignment will put strain on the element of trust in the relationship between contractor and client, bringing the positive outcome of other future discussions in jeopardy. This reflection implicitly emphasises that a more externally focused value approach may have its advantages. Initiatives such as mixed client-contractor construction teams (Dutch: Bouw teams), that have an entirely different approach of project definition before the tendering phase, anticipate on that. In other words: currently the aim is to maximise internally focused value (=alignment of tender and practice) but in the end the evolving relevant issues all seem to indicate more externally focused value generating approaches in the future.

The Bouwteam is in both the building and infrastructure sector increasingly mentioned as a possibility to improve client-contractor collaboration. Currently, compared to the building sector, the infrastructure sector lags behind in applying this collaboration format. This research aims to investigate to what level building and infrastructure projects differ and match and whether differences in perspectives on collaboration are caused by the nature of sectors or influenced by other factors. The results of this research show that the nature of sectors is of little influence on the collaboration perspectives, while the relation between the client and contractor seems to have a major influence on the collaboration perspectives.

Nowadays, infrastructure projects seem to become more complex and the project manager’s ability to control projects decreases. Therefore, it is crucial to adapt project management to cope with the emerging complexity. Flexibility options are explored to deal with the increasing complexity. To grasp complexity, a selection of the Technical, Organisational and External framework was used. Eleven flexibility enablers are studied to operationalise them and make them applicable for project managers. In this explanatory research, a case study has been done to explain the possibilities for flexibility enablers to cope with the found complexities. The results of the individual case study and the cross-case study provided input for a proposal on how flexibility enablers facilitate the management of project complexity. A selection of related complexity elements and flexibility enablers have been used to develop a flexible project management tool. The tool provides insights into the selected complexities, creates awareness on flexibility perspectives from the project team, allows to choose the operationalised flexibility enablers, and reflects on the changes made to keep improving. The tool is meant to be used throughout the project and supports incorporating flexibility to be a dynamic process. Concluding, the awareness of complexity and flexibility helps to cope with complex infrastructure projects. The developed tool for project management will help apply specific flexibility enablers to cope with relevant complexity elements. Future research into other construction organisations is needed to generalise the findings of the operationalisation of the selected flexibility enablers. Also, future research is recommended on the awareness and the adaptation possibilities for flexibility in project management within the infrastructure.

Despite 20 years of research into opportunity management, construction organizations are struggling to capture opportunities in practice. The goal of this research was to improve the management of opportunities in a construction organization. Four sub-research questions were used to (1) create an overview of opportunity management theory, (2) create an overview of opportunity management practice in a construction organization, (3) identify gaps by comparative analysis of opportunity management theory and practice, and (4) suggest the steps that need to be taken to improve opportunity management practice. The literature review presented four themes that are essential for opportunity management that are used to guide the comparison: Language, culture, process, and infrastructure. From the exploration, it was concluded that there is very limited experience in the organization in managing opportunities. To gain experience, new opportunities need to be identified before they can be managed. Requirements for a practice guide of an opportunity identification session are formulated using the literature review and exploration. The practice guide describes the preparation, execution, and completion of the opportunity identification session. Concluding, start with the identification of opportunities to improve the management of opportunities. An incremental approach is suggested to gain experience in the management of opportunities. Future research into other construction organizations is needed to generalize the findings of opportunity management practice. Also, future research into the gaps between theory and practice should help to improve the overall practice of opportunity management in the construction industry.

Virtual Reality (VR) is a hot topic; some argue that VR causes a computing revolution as impactful as the smartphone. The infrastructure industry recently adopted VR as a tool in the stakeholder process. This thesis defines Virtual Reality as a three-dimensional virtual environment in which one can interact. VR is applied in several projects which indicates that the contracting authority is willing to pay for the use of VR. However, it is still unknown what the benefits of applying VR in the stakeholder process are. This thesis contains exploratory research into the added value of using VR in the dynamic stakeholder process.