Efficient thermal management is critical for future electric aircraft. An innovative approach (Outer Mold Line cooling) leverages the aircraft’s aerodynamic surfaces for heat dissipation, heating the adjacent boundary layer. It is known that wall-heating can have detrimental effects on laminar–turbulent transition driven by stationary crossflow instabilities (S-CFI). However, its impact remains largely unclear due to a lack of experimental studies. This work investigates the effect of a heated wall across all stages of S-CFI development, spanning linear growth, non-linear saturation, and laminar-turbulent transition. This is achieved through comprehensive wind-tunnel experiments, complemented by comparisons with Compressible Nonlinear Parabolized Stability Equations (CNPSE) results. Results show that wall-heating increases the boundary-layer momentum deficit and the crossflow velocity component, leading to increased destabilization of S-CFI. In turn, higher S-CFI amplitudes promote an earlier onset of non-linear interactions between stationary, traveling, and secondary instability modes. Notably, under equivalent freestream turbulence (Tu[jls-end-space/]) levels, wall-heating results in a higher S-CFI saturation amplitude compared to adiabatic conditions. In addition, spectral analysis reveals substantial amplification of unsteady perturbations with wall-heating. A key finding of this work is the strong destabilization of traveling CFI under wall-heating, which persists into the nonlinear regime and yields highly amplified type-III instabilities. One possible implication of the strong destabilization of T-CFI and type-III instabilities is that at sufficiently high wall-to-freestream temperature ratios, T-CFI could dominate the transition process, potentially leading to a transition scenario similar to that observed under high levels of freestream turbulence.

The bursting of a laminar separation bubble subject to periodic forcing is studied experimentally on a NACA0018 airfoil at a chord Reynolds number of 7 × 10⁴. Bursting of the bubble is initiated by a dynamic ramp increase in angle of attack past the static stall angle with a nondimensional pitch rate of 0.008. The initial and final effective angles of attack are 4.9^◦ and 7.2^◦. Periodic forcing is continuously applied to the boundary layer by a spanwise-uniform alternating current dielectric-barrier-discharge plasma actuator at the leading edge of the airfoil. The forcing frequency was chosen to match the unforced vortex shedding frequency of the separated shear layer at the initial angle of attack. Surface pressure and particle image velocimetry measurements were obtained during the airfoil motion to investigate the boundary layer development on the suction surface. In the unforced flow, bursting of the laminar separation bubble begins before the maximum angle of attack is reached. The results show that periodic forcing can either delay or prevent the onset of bursting past the end of the pitching motion. With increasing forcing amplitude, the laminar separation bubble may persist at the maximum angle of attack for on the order of 100 convective time units before bursting. Although periodic forcing can delay bursting, the dynamics of the bursting process are largely unchanged once the bursting process initiates, requiring a period of approximately 30 convective time units for the flow to settle to a massively separated state. The delay in the onset of bursting increases and becomes less deterministic as the forcing amplitude increases, until the forcing amplitude is sufficient to prevent bursting entirely.

Understanding and controlling the dynamic interactions between fluid flows and solid materials and structures-a field known as fluid-structure interaction-is central not only to established disciplines such as aerospace and naval engineering, but also to emerging technologies such as energy harvesting, soft robotics, and biomedical devices. In recent years, the advent of metamaterials has provided exciting opportunities to rethink and redesign fluid-structure interactions. The idea of engineering the internal structure of materials that interface with fluid flows opens a new horizon for the precise and effective manipulation and control of coupled fluidic, acoustic, and elastodynamic responses. This review focuses on this relatively unexplored interdisciplinary theme with broad technological significance. Salient potential applications, such as reduction of fuel consumption in transport systems, efficiency of renewable energy extraction, noise mitigation, and resilience against structural fatigue, depend on controlling interactions among flow, acoustic, and vibration mechanisms. Flow control, for example, which spans a wealth of regimes such as laminar, transitional, turbulent, and unsteady separated flows, is strongly influenced by fluid-structure interaction. This review surveys and discusses conceptual frameworks that describe the interplay between fluids and elastic solids, with a focus on contemporary and emerging concepts. The paper is organised into three main sections: fluid-structure and flow-phonon interactions, flow-induced acoustic interactions with metamaterials, and exotic metamaterial concepts with potential impact on fluid-structure interaction. It concludes with perspectives on current challenges and future directions in this rapidly expanding area of research.

This study examines the control capabilities of an array of spanwise-invariant roughness strips applied on a swept-wing boundary layer (BL) dominated by a cross-flow instability (CFI) that is forced by periodically spaced discrete roughness elements to a monochromatic wavelength. Several configurations of strip arrays are investigated, varying their height, width and chordwise periodicity. Infrared thermography is employed to track the impact on the BL transition location. Optimal configurations are identified, extending laminar flow by up to 10 % of the wing chord. Additionally, BL forced by patches of randomised surface roughness are considered, better representing realistic wing surfaces. In this scenario, the application of strip arrays with optimal geometry extends the laminar portion of the BL by almost 10 % chord and beyond when combined with a discrete roughness element array. Time-averaged particle image velocimetry (PIV) velocity fields are acquired to monitor the CFI amplitude for the various configurations. The BL spectral content in the spanwise direction is used to characterise the chordwise behaviour of individual disturbance modes, whose amplitude is found to be reduced by up to 17 % for the optimal strip configuration.

This experimental study demonstrates the feasibility of integrating particle swarm optimization (PSO) within a hardware-in-the-loop framework for real-time active flow control. The objective is the attenuation of Tollmien–Schlichting (TS) waves developing in an incompressible, two-dimensional laminar boundary layer, using dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators. Single- and multi-frequency TS waves are artificially excited and amplify before reaching the control region. Control actions are optimized online using PSO, which iteratively updates a population of candidate solutions based on a pressure-based performance metric. In single-frequency scenarios, candidate solutions are parametrized as finite impulse response filters, convolved with an upstream pressure signal to generate the control voltage. In multi-frequency scenarios, the controller constructs a linear superposition of sinusoids at the triggered TS frequencies, identified online. The effectiveness of control is quantified by the attenuation of pressure fluctuations measured by wall-mounted microphones downstream of the actuator. Upon convergence, the best-performing control actions are re-tested in independent experiments, using two-component particle image velocimetry (PIV) to assess the effect of the controller on the velocity field inside the boundary layer. The results show that PSO consistently achieves appreciable TS waves suppression, as evidenced by pressure fluctuation levels reduced by 30%–40% relative to the uncontrolled case and by weakened phase-coherent velocity disturbances. Furthermore, phase-free PIV measurements demonstrate a downstream delay in the growth of velocity fluctuations of up to 15 δ₀*, where δ₀* is the displacement thickness at the control location. These findings confirm the feasibility of PSO-driven optimization for real-time flow control in transitional boundary layers.

This work investigates the laminar–turbulent transition of an incompressible swept-wing boundary-layer flow interacting with a forward-facing step using direct numerical simulations and two-dimensional linear secondary stability analysis. The focus is placed on the most critical transition scenario, where the step abruptly shifts the transition front upstream. A single-wavelength stationary crossflow perturbation is artificially triggered and allowed to develop upstream of the step. The effect of the amplitude of the incoming perturbation on the salient mechanisms of instability at the step are assessed for a fixed step height. The regime of abrupt laminar–turbulent transition at the step develops only in the case of the largest incoming perturbation amplitude considered, implying that the transition regime due to the step cannot be categorised exclusively based on local Reynolds number and instability wavelength. Step-induced transition is attributed to the stationary deformation of the shear layer immediately downstream of the step, thereby promoting rapid spatial amplification of high-frequency unsteady instabilities. The mechanisms supporting this shear-layer deformation, a mixture of linear and nonlinear growth effects, are examined by deriving energy-balance equations for the stationary spanwise-harmonic perturbation modes.

Stationary velocity-perturbation streaks have recently been identified in laminar swept-wing boundary-layer flow interacting with a surface forward-facing step. Streaky structures at the step promote early laminar-turbulent transition under certain conditions. This work utilizes direct numerical simulations to explore the mechanisms of growth of stationary streaks at the step and provides insight into their origin, nature, and spatial organization. The analysis is mainly focused on, but not restricted to, incoming perturbations in the form of stationary crossflow instability. Stationary streaky structures are found to be universal to swept forward-facing-step flow subjected to three-dimensional perturbations in the incoming boundary layer. The streaks at the step are primarily ascribed to the lift-up effect. They appear as a linear perturbation response of the highly sheared step flow to the cross-stream pattern of incoming perturbations. A mechanism of base-flow deceleration additionally contributes to feeding growth to the streaks. Linear stability analysis carried out through the harmonic Navier-Stokes method confirms that the streaks are a linear perturbation phenomenon. Effects of spanwise perturbation wavelength and effective sweep angle on the mechanisms of the streaks are also assessed.

This work explores the use of a shallow surface hump for passive control and stabilisation of stationary crossflow (CF) instabilities. Wind tunnel experiments are conducted on a spanwise-invariant swept-wing model. The influence of the hump on the boundary layer stability and laminar-turbulent transition is assessed through infrared thermography and particle image velocimetry measurements. The results reveal a strong dependence of the stabilisation effect on the amplitude of the incoming CF disturbances, which is conditioned via discrete roughness elements at the wing leading edge. At a high forcing amplitude, weakly nonlinear stationary CF vortices interact with the hump and result in an abrupt anticipation of transition, essentially tripping the flow. In contrast, at a lower forcing amplitude, CF vortices interact with the hump during linear growth. Notable stabilisation of the primary CF disturbance and considerable transition delay with respect to the reference case (i.e. without hump) is then observed. The spatial region just downstream of the hump apex is shown to be key to the stabilisation mechanism. In this region, the primary CF disturbances rapidly change spanwise orientation and shape, possibly driven by the pressure gradient change-over caused by the hump and the development of CF reversal. The amplitude and shape deformation of the primary CF instabilities are found to contribute to a long-lasting suboptimal growth downstream of the hump, eventually leading to transition delay.

One of the most critical technological challenges embedded in the electrification of future aircraft revolves around the thermal management of batteries and fuel cells. An innovative idea involves using the aircraft’s aerodynamic surfaces to dissipate the extra heat, thereby reducing the impact that traditional thermal management systems (e.g. ram air heat exchanger) have on the overall aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft. However, the limited experimental research addressing the influence of a heated surface on the stability and transition of the crossflow instability (CFI) hinders the assessment of the aerodynamic impact of this technology for future aircraft, where swept wings are ubiquitous. Thus, the objective of this work is to experimentally study the effect of a heated wall on the stability and final breakdown of CF vortices. To do so, experiments are conducted on a 45◦ swept flat plate wind tunnel model, where the surface temperature is increased by means of a surface-embedded electrical heater, yielding a mean wall-temperature ratio of T _w/T _∞ = 1.055. Overall, the experimental (i.e. HWA) and numerical (i.e. CLST) results show that wall heating leads to significant destabilization of the stationary CFI. Interestingly, a spectral analysis of the HWA signal reveals substantial amplification of the traveling CF mode under wall-heating conditions, which in turn appears significantly more destabilized than the stationary CF mode. Additionally, inspection of the high-frequency content in the HWA measurements indicates premature breakdown of the CF vortices and advancement of the laminar-turbulent transition by Δ _x/c _x = 6.3% with wall heating. The results presented in this work render a first insight into the impact of a non-adiabatic wall on the development of the crossflow instability and subsequent breakdown to turbulence.

This study reports the first time-resolved particle image velocimetry characterization of a planar two-phase mixing layer flow, whose velocity field is measured simultaneously in gas and liquid streams. Two parallel air and water flows meet downstream of a splitter plate, giving rise to an initially spanwise invariant configuration. The aim is to elucidate further the mechanisms leading to the flow breakup in gas-assisted atomization. The complete experimental characterization of the velocity field represents a database that could be used in data-driven reduced-order models to investigate the global behaviour of the flow system. After the analysis of a selected reference case, a parametric study of the flow behaviour is performed by varying the liquid and gas Reynolds numbers, and as a consequence also the gas-to-liquid dynamic pressure ratio , shedding light on both time-averaged (mean) and unsteady velocity fields. In the reference case, it is shown that the mean flow exhibits a wake region just downstream of the splitter plate, followed by the development of a mixing layer. By increasing both and, the streamwise extent of the wake decreases and eventually vanishes, the flow resulting in a pure mixing layer regime. The spectral analysis of the normal-to-flow velocity fluctuations outlines different flow regimes by variation of the governing parameters, giving more insights into the global characteristics of the flow field. As a major result, it is found that at high and values, the velocity fluctuations are characterized by low-frequency temporal oscillations synchronized in several locations within the flow field, which suggest the presence of a global mode of instability. The proper orthogonal decomposition of velocity fluctuations, performed in both gas and liquid phases, reveals finally that the synchronized oscillations are associated with a low-frequency dominant flapping mode of the gas-liquid interface. Higher-order modes correspond to interfacial wave structures travelling with the so-called Dimotakis velocity. For lower gas Reynolds numbers, the leading modes describe higher frequency fingers shedding at the interface.

Achieving and maintaining laminar flow on large swept lifting surfaces of subsonic aircraft poses a considerable challenge.

A novel mechanism is identified, through which a spanwise-invariant surface feature (a two-dimensional forward-facing step) significantly stabilizes the stationary crossflow instability of a three-dimensional boundary layer. The mechanism is termed here as reverse lift-up effect, inasmuch as it acts reversely to the classic lift-up effect; that is, kinetic energy of an already-existing shear-flow instability is transferred to the underlying laminar flow through the action of cross-stream perturbations. To characterize corresponding energy-transfer mechanisms, a theoretical framework is presented, which is applicable to generic three-dimensional flows and surface features of arbitrary shape with one invariant spatial direction. The identification of a passive geometry-induced effect responsible for dampening stationary crossflow vortices is a promising finding for laminar flow control applications.

This work explores the dynamic response of a turbulent boundary layer to large-scale reactive opposition control, at a friction Reynolds number of Reτ≈2240. A surface-mounted hot-film is employed as the input sensor, capturing large-scale fluctuations in the wall-shear stress, and actuation is performed with a single on/off wall-normal blowing jet positioned 2.4δ downstream of the input sensor, operating with an exit velocity of vj=0.4U∞. Our study builds upon the work of Abbassi et al. [Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 67, 30 (2017)0142727X10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2017.05.003] and includes a control-calibration experiment and a performance assessment using PIV- and PTV-based flow field analyses. With the control-off calibration-experiment conducted a priori, a transfer kernel is identified so that the velocity fluctuations that are to-be-controlled can be estimated. The controller targets large-scale high-speed zones in an "opposing"mode and low-speed zones in a "reinforcing"mode. A desynchronized mode was tested for reference and consisted of a statistically similar control mode, but without synchronization to the incoming velocity fluctuations. An energy-attenuation of about 40 % is observed for the opposing control mode in the frequency band corresponding to the passage of large-scale motions. This proves the effectiveness of the control in targeting large-scale motions: an energy-intensification of roughly 45% occurs for the reinforcing control mode instead, while no change in energy, within the wall-normal range targeted, appears with the desynchronized control mode. Moreover, direct measures of the skin-friction drag are inferred from PTV data. Results indicate that the opposing control logic yields the lowest wall-shear stress (3% lower than the desynchronized control, and 10% lower than the uncontrolled flow). Finally, a FIK-decomposition of the skin-friction coefficient revealed that the off-the-wall turbulence follows a consistent trend with the PTV-based wall-shear stress measurements, although biased by an increased shear in the wake of the boundary layer given the formation of a plume due to the jet-in-crossflow actuation.