This thesis examines how Dutch primary school architecture between 1970 and 1990 reflected evolving educational and social ideals. By analyzing multifunctional school buildings, it highlights the interplay between education, urban planning, and community development.

This research investigates the link between Hertzberger’s theory on meeting spaces in De Drie Hoven with lived experiences. As De Drie Hoven exemplifies a shift in elderly architecture of the 1970s and because of the integration of meeting spaces, it has relevance in adding depth to the contemporary discourse about elderly architecture.
While existing literature emphasizes the importance of social space in elderly architecture, limited research has been done into small scale meeting spaces. This research used existing literature as a starting point and archival documentation and secondary sources to add depth to existing research. Constructing a link between the architect’s theory and lived experiences has lead to highlighting a gap between Hertzberger’s intent and the reality of using these social spaces.
The first part of this research focuses on Hertzberger's theory within the meeting spaces of De Drie Hoven. Hertzberger’s principles are; softening the boundaries between public and private spaces, creating territorial responsibility, visual connection and providing reason for use. These principles are clearly reflected in De Drie Hoven where seating in corridors, at entrances of housing units, in circulation zones create a variety of meeting spaces. The second part constructs a link as it adds perspectives from actual residents, architectural critiques and other stories about the meeting spaces. It highlights the complexity of applying Hertzberger’s theory in practice. While many meeting spaces are socially effective, there are challenges that effect the use of some spaces.
This research concludes that Hertzberger’s theory on meeting spaces offers valuable insights for socially engaging architecture, but designing effective elderly architecture is a complex task. The effectiveness depends on specific need of the users and a careful balance between openness, visibility, privacy and functionality. The findings of this study contribute to the architectural discourse on elderly care by demonstrating the importance of designing not only central, but also smaller-scale meeting spaces to enhance social interaction.

In this thesis, research is done looking into the assessment of architectural competitions for school buildings in the Netherlands around 1960 and which role the design of social spaces played on the assessment. The main research question is therefore: ‘How were architectural competitions for school buildings assessed in the Netherlands around 1960, and which role did the design of social spaces play in this assessment?’. A case study about the 1959 competition for a primary school in the Netherlands is done in combination with architectural historical research to answer this question. The results of the research and case study show that the new ideas about education and school buildings, emerged after the Second World War, directed the development of a new type of school where room was left for social spaces as a place of interaction. In the assessment of the architectural competitions the jury would therefore focus on the implementation of the new ideas in the school buildings in which social spaces, and specifically a central common room, played an important role.

This thesis investigates the influence of client Addie van Roijen-Wortmann on the final design of the Hubertus House in Amsterdam, designed by Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck. While Van Eyck has been widely discussed and acknowledged within architectural discourse, the specific role of Van Roijen-Wortmann as client in shaping the final design of the Hubertus House has received little attention. This study addresses this research gap by asking the question: How did the input provided by client Addie van Roijen-Wortmann influence the final design of the Hubertus House?
The research is based on the analysis of primary historical documents, publications by and about Van Eyck and Van Roijen-Wortmann, as well as secondary literature in which scholars reflect on the Hubertus House. By tracing the client’s expectations and investigating how Aldo van Eyck translated these into architectural form during the design process, the study reveals the extent to which Van Roijen-Wortmann’s input shaped the architecture of the Hubertus House.

The findings of this thesis show that Van Roijen-Wortmann had a clear vision for the building that would simultaneously express protection and openness, reflect democratic values and a non-hierarchical structure, provide a warm and affectionate atmosphere, ease the fear of thresholds (‘drempelvrees’), and balance freedom with security. The research demonstrates that these principles were actively integrated by Van Eyck into the final design. His architectural language and decisions closely aligned with her vision, indicating a good collaborative process.

The conclusion of this thesis is that the Hubertus House was not solely the product of Aldo van Eyck’s architectural vision, but also rather the result of a meaningful collaboration between architect and client. Van Roijen-Wortmann’s input had a clear and lasting impact on both the form and function of the building, challenging conventional notions of architectural authorship.

Although this thesis examines a single case study, it points to the broader need for further research into the role of clients in architectural history. Future studies might compare similar collaborations between architects and clients from the 1970s to better understand how such client-architect relationships typically functioned during that era.

The Effenaar in Eindhoven evolved from a grassroots squatter initiative in the 1970s into one of the city’s most prominent cultural institutions. Founded by young activists who reclaimed a former textile factory, the venue reflected the countercultural and political climate of the time, particularly the influence of the squatters movement. Over time, the Effenaar developed from an informal, community-driven space into a professional concert hall, mirroring Eindhoven’s broader transformation from an industrial hub to a center of design, culture, and innovation.

Its spatial, cultural, and political evolution reveals how cultural centers can play a vital role in redefining urban identity and contributing to long-term municipal strategies. The Effenaar’s transition shows the integration of bottom-up initiatives into official planning, the reuse of industrial heritage, and the shifting relationship between alternative culture and institutional recognition. As a case study, it demonstrates how cultural venues rooted in activism and local need can become lasting fixtures in the urban fabric and spearhead meaningful change.

This thesis critically examines Anna Heringer’s architectural practice as a form of ecological design that moves beyond conventional notions of environmental responsiveness. Through the lens of posthumanist, ecofeminist, and poststructuralist theory, drawing primarily on the work of Peg Rawes, it explores how Heringer’s Rudrapur trilogy in Bangladesh engages with the relational entanglements of material, social, and environmental ecologies. Rather than viewing sustainability through a technocratic or performance-based lens, Heringer’s architecture foregrounds local materials, collective authorship, and socio-political empowerment. Her use of mud and bamboo is framed as both a practical and political act: resisting the high-carbon logic of global construction and reviving Indigenous knowledge systems. This analysis incorporates Foucauldian perspectives on power, revealing how materials embody and contest socio-economic hierarchies, and builds on Karen Barad’s agential realism to show how materials co-produce architectural meaning. Heringer’s work also reflects feminist relational theories of Rosi Braidotti, especially in her inclusive design processes and attention to marginalised users, including women and disabled individuals. However, the thesis also discusses the contradictions within her practice, particularly the postcolonial tensions tied to Western recognition as a figure, donations, and problems of authorship. Although her process's collective and participatory character is clear, along with the collaboration with a local NGO, her practice still works within the frames of Western privilege, which raises questions about the representational equity. Overall, this thesis argues that the theory of relational ecologies enriches the discussion on the emerging methodologies, helping to asses their potentials but also limitations.

The concept of multifunctional centers emerged strongly in the post-World War II period in the Netherlands. This concept was brought as a solution to strengthen social cohesion and fight segregation in diverse neighborhoods. Combining different functions in these centers is a widely researched topic in the field of architectural history. This thesis will focus more specifically on the intergenerational aspect of the combination of different target groups within a multifunctional center. The main question is: What is the goal of Frank van Klingeren with a multifunctional center on intergenerational target groups?
In order to find an answer to this research question, the following method is used. Using a literature review, first, the political and societal background is researched, and secondly, governmental and architectural ideologies regarding multifunctional centers are analyzed. After that, three case studies, about de Meerpaal in Dronten, the Agora in Lelystad, and ‘t Karregat in Eindhoven, were conducted. Based on this, the following answer is formulated. The goal of Frank van Klingeren was to stimulate interaction between different groups in society to strengthen community life, which would stimulate communal activities, participation, and openness. With this, he tried to decrease the gap between private and public.
With this thesis, the knowledge gap about intergenerational contact in multifunctional centers is decreased. This contributes to the knowledge about the functioning of these centers. A notable implication is that it was hard to find sources that were specifically relevant for the intergenerational aspect, rather than different target groups in general. To substantiate the answer more strongly, further research is needed.

In this research the question is; What different types of public library where being developed in the post war period from 1960 to 1980? Starting with a chapter on the history of libraries, about the different systems and actors that can be found in the library. Then a chapter on how types make it possible to distinguish and separate different buildings from each other, by means of the classification systems of form, function and space. This is followed by a case study of analyses of libraries from Wassenaar, Utrecht, Leeuwarden, Deventer, Den Haag, Amsterdam and Rotterdam, where the previous chapters work as an instrument to the analysis. This research shows that the type of public libraries being developed in the post war period from 1960 tot 1980 are on a spectrum from monofunctionality to multifunctionality and the number of floors and the order of size of the library. On one side of the spectrum are small libraries with only the primary functions of lending and reading books. On the other side are large libraries with in addition to the primary functions a whole range of secondary functions.

Between 1970 and 1990, public libraries in the Netherlands underwent a significant transformation. They went from quiet, book centered spaces into multifunctional and socially integrated public buildings. This shift was created by broader changes in society, thanks to government decentralization, economic constraints and urban renewal.

This thesis explores how these evolving ideas are reflected in the design of the Public Library of
Heerlen (1986) by architect Jo Coenen. Through a case study, it is examined how spatial organization, urban integration and design vision contributed to the library’s multifunctional character. By using primary sources such as architectural drawings, journals and interviews, the library is placed in a broader context. Additionally, two comparative cases, Apeldoorn (1984) by Hans Ruijssenaars and Zeewolde (1989) by Koen van Velsen, are analysed to create a broader context.

At the end of the thesis, it is concluded that the library of Heerlen is an unique example of integration of multiple functions in its urban landscape. While Apeldoorn follows a more book oriented layout and Zeewolde emphasizes internal spatial openness, neither has the same amount of multifunctionality as Heerlen. The library’s spatial layout, the integration with the Raadhuisplein and the response to Heerlen’s post-mine urban renewal efforts make it a unique
design to the challenges of that time period.

This thesis investigates the architectural design and practical functioning of communal spaces within the Technikon complex in Rotterdam, designed by H.A. Maaskant between 1955 and 1971. Conceived as a large-scale vocational education centre, the Technikon brought together eight separate schools within a single building, with the intention of encouraging interaction and efficient shared use of resources. Through archival research, spatial analysis, and user reflections, the study explores the contrast between Maaskant’s architectural intentions and the institutional realities that shaped the use of the building. Particular focus is given to the organization of communal spaces such as the theatre, canteens, and circulation zones, which were designed to enable encounters between different user groups but were often restricted in practice. The thesis argues that while the Technikon’s spatial configuration reflected a progressive vision of collective education, institutional rules and logistical demands frequently inhibited the interaction that the architecture aimed to support. By situating the Technikon within broader post-war trends in educational architecture, the thesis contributes to a deeper understanding of the historical relationship between architectural ambition and educational governance in the mid-20th century.

This research investigates how the architecture of two mid-twentieth century cultural buildings - The Meerpaal in Dronten (1967) by Frank van Klingeren and the Southbank Centre in London (1968) led by architect Norman Engleback - facilitates social interaction within their communal spaces. A comparative historical research will demonstrate how, through the lens of the architect, a building can facilitate community engagement, thereby creating a deeper understanding across various cultural contexts. Frank van Klingeren, envisioned the concept of nuisance, incompleteness, and spatial openness as tools to facilitate community engagement. He believes that through the rejection of spatial separations, people confront each other which leads to unintentional encounters and opportunities for social interaction. Van Klingeren welcomed nuisance, thinking that friction would stimulate a shared sense of belonging. In contrast, Engleback believed that architecture should serve as a democratic platform, facilitating inclusivity by designing accessible, multi-layered spaces that integrate public life. He advocates for a civic landscape that can support both formal cultural events and informal public life through expansive foyers, elevated walkways, and undefined public areas. In conclusion, despite their differences, both buildings share common ambitions: to democratize space, to stimulate spontaneous social interactions and to embrace the concept of unfinished. Creating an environment for social interaction in architecture is not a singular condition, but a spectrum of different strategies.

This thesis examines the changing role of religion and churches in Rotterdam, from the seventeenth century to the present day. Central to this narrative is the Laurenskerk, which both symbolizes and reflects the broader transitions within Rotterdam.

Over the years, the city and its inhabitants have undergone significant transformation—socially, culturally, and architecturally—from pre-war urban development to the devastation of World War II. For centuries and decades prior to the war, the church was the central hub of social life. However, after the immense suffering Rotterdam endured, people no longer found their sense of belonging in the church, but rather in other forms of social infrastructure.

As a result, churches gradually emptied, losing their religious function, with attention shifting toward their aesthetic and historical value. To preserve them, many were repurposed into multifunctional spaces. The Laurenskerk stands as a prime example: a ruin that, after the bombings, became a symbol of resilience and historical continuity, and was later adapted to serve various purposes in order to support its upkeep.

This thesis argues that the evolution of Rotterdam’s churches parallels the broader social shift from religious collectivity to cultural individualism, marking a fundamental change in how urban space and identity are constructed.

The design of school buildings in the Netherlands during the 1950s and 1960s played a crucial role in reflecting the social and democratic ideals of postwar reconstruction. Rooted in modernist architectural principles of simplicity, functionality, and adaptability, these schools were designed to support educational reform, social equality, and modernization. Notable examples, such as J.J.P. Oud’s Tweede Vrijzinnig Christelijk Lyceum and J.J. Hornstra’s Haags Montessori Lyceum, demonstrate how architecture was used to create inclusive, community-oriented learning environments. Centralized communal spaces and specialized departments encouraged collaboration, accessibility, and personalized education. By integrating democratic values into their design, these schools functioned not only as places of learning but also as symbols of broader societal progress in the postwar Netherlands.

The urban plan of Pendrecht was influenced by the principles of the functional city, emphasizing the separation of functions. This was implemented through residential blocks clustered around communal gardens. Distances within the district were designed to be walkable, making it easy for children to explore. Car-free zones and roads for destination traffic were introduced to separate traffic from residential and recreational areas. This layout impacted both the physical structure and social interactions within the community.
The functional separation of Pendrecht led to both connectedness and isolation. While isolation limited social interaction and created physical separation from the surrounding environment, communal gardens and public spaces promoted social cohesion. Pendrecht was designed as an independent neighborhood with its own shops, schools, and churches. This allowed women and children to live mostly within the neighborhood without relying on Rotterdam. However, accessibility for pedestrians and cyclists to the city and surrounding areas was limited.
In the 1950s, women were often housewives with limited opportunities for paid employment. Social interactions, housekeeping, and motherly roles were central to their daily lives. The walkable neighborhood and pedestrian-only center made car ownership unnecessary for women. As a result, their freedom of movement and social interaction was significant within Pendrecht, but the need to leave the neighborhood was negligible.
Pendrecht offered green and play areas for younger children, but the lack of connection to surrounding areas limited older children’s exploration. This isolation restricted their social and spatial development. However, the green spaces and play areas created a safe environment for younger children. These areas were easily navigable, allowing mothers to supervise their children. The urban plan prioritized play areas and public green spaces near the building blocks. Sufficient parking was provided to prevent cars from overtaking these areas.
The separation of functions created a form of isolation. Connections with the city were primarily necessary for working men and had little impact on the daily lives of women and children. While the urban plan fostered a sense of community within the district, it also led to a degree of isolation. Traditional gender roles confined women’s daily lives to the home, and interactions were largely limited to the neighborhood. Nonetheless, the walkable design, local shops, and communal areas provided opportunities for social cohesion, while green areas offered children the freedom to play. This contributed to a sense of connection and community.

This research shows that functional separation in Pendrecht was not only a spatial strategy but also a form of social and spatial isolation, particularly for women and children. The neighborhood offered many opportunities for interaction within its boundaries but limited connections beyond. The separation fostered strong internal community yet contributed to a closed-off position.
The key contribution of this thesis is the argument that the functional layout of Pendrecht can also be understood as a form of social isolation. This insight highlights how urban planning can have social consequences, especially when intersecting with traditional gender roles.

This thesis researches how cultural functions contributed to the social and cultural recovery of Rotterdam during the post-war reconstruction period. For this research, concert hall de Doelen in Rotterdam is used as a case study. After the bombing in 1940, the city not only faced the challenge of rebuilding its physical structures but also had to reconstruct its social and cultural identity. De Doelen, which was originally destroyed in the bombing, became a symbol of resilience and a key player in the redefinition of Rotterdam’s cultural fabric.

De Doelen’s design was intended to be open, accessible, and inviting to the visitors. It reflects the post-war ambition of making culture available to everyone. Although the original plan included a multifunctional cultural and commercial center known as the “Rockefeller Center,” financial constraints forced the city to scale down. Still, the building became a central space for social interaction.

The support of councilor N. Zeelenberg was significant this process. Her focus on accessibility and inclusion ensured that De Doelen was not just a concert hall but a building for all citizens. The final design supported urban recovery by fostering public gathering and strengthening social bonds.

This thesis shows how De Doelen contributed to rebuilding the cultural fabric of the city. It demonstrates how cultural buildings can support recovery and the development of a new identity after destruction.

The motive for this thesis lies with public buildings that were designed for a specific purpose and seemed to meet the wishes of their time and place, but the popularity of which declined, leading to demolishing or large renovations. The building that is being studied is the Babylon building in the Hague, a multi-functional building built in 1978. After initial popularity, the building quickly lost its visitors and underwent a large renovation in 2007, only 30 years after its opening. The research question is therefore ‘What were the ideas behind Babylon and the way it was designed and how did this influence the functionality and popularity of the building?’. To answer this question, the building and its design process are studied at different scales through literary and archival research. Through this research, it becomes apparent that, while Babylon is viewed both positively and negatively, the negative critiques have the upper hand in every scale. Location and both exterior and interior design choices have lead to the fall of Babylon.

The post-war reconstruction of the Sint Laurens Church in Rotterdam after World War II marked a pivotal moment in the city’s history. This abstract provides an overview of the comprehensive examination of the reconstruction process, exploring the architectural resilience, renovation discussions, and the culmination of renovation efforts. Through diverse architectural perspectives, strategic elements of resilience, and enduring impacts on the surrounding environment, the renovated church emerged as a symbol of resilience and renewal. Its evolution from a place of worship to a cultural hub underscores the importance of historical preservation in shaping urban identity and community resilience. The reconstruction of the Sint Laurens Church in Rotterdam embodies resilience, community unity, and architectural innovation. This thesis explores the discussions surrounding its restoration, emphasizing cultural heritage, urban planning, socio economic impact, environmental sustainability, and the enduring legacy of this iconic landmark. In this thesis the question: “How did the Sint Laurens Church in Rotterdam exhibit resilience and survive the devastating bombing on May 14, 1940. What transformations, both in terms of function and appearance, did it undergo during the post-war reconstruction?”, will be answered.

Multifunctional accommodations (M.F.A.) have been a topic of conversation in the Dutch educational sector since the late 1960s. The first Dutch M.F.A. to have been constructed, the Rijnlands Lyceum in Oegstgeest (R.L.O.), was built at a time when the Dutch government had greatly reduced funding into this sector as a result of the devastating effects of the Second World War in the country. As a result, many schools were executing with insufficient funds, leading to necessary facilities lacking in most schools. The R.L.O. was a result of an at the time rare successful collaboration between a variety of stakeholders, making it an interesting case study for research after its execution. As a result of the approval of the various stakeholders of the R.L.O. after project completion, the Dutch Ministeries of Education and of Culture established a Commission of Multifunctional Accommodations, which was in charge of researching how educational buildings could be used by third parties after school hours. Architect Rutger D. Bleeker, the architect of the R.L.O., had a place in this commission as well. After publishing two reports with their findings in 1975 and 1980, the C.M.A.’s findings were picked up by the Dutch government and used to inspire other schools in the Netherlands to open their doors for multifunctional use. The research question guiding this research is ‘To what extent did the R.L.O. have a significant impact on the Dutch educational system in the second half of the 20th century?’. At the end of the paper, it is found that the R.L.O.’s impact on the Dutch educational sector at the time was extensive and deep rooted, especially in its example of successful stakeholder relationship management and collaboration.

This article delves into the architectural design of Plan van Gool, situated in Amsterdam's Buikslotermeer neighbourhood, with a particular focus on its concept of elevated streets. Through an examination of archival research, literature and reference projects like Brinkman's Spangen block and Auguste Perret's Le Havre, the research investigates the function of these elevated streets and their role in shaping community dynamics and urban environments. Drawing comparisons with other architectural projects, the study underscores the significance of elevated streets in promoting social cohesion and equality within residential complexes. Additionally, interviews with early residents provide insights into community formation. The findings suggest that elevated streets of Plan van Gool primarily serve practical functions like reducing stairwells and increasing access to daylight, while the undervalued other design decisions play a vital role in creating affordable, adaptable housing and nurturing a sense of anonymity, which is in turn responsible for social diversity, equality and ultimately a cohesive sense of community.