Achieving sustainability is an important challenge that requires new approaches to the design and production of materials and products. Bio-based plastics offer a promising opportunity in the search for sustainable materials. Derived from renewable feedstocks such as plants and agricultural waste, they offer an alternative to traditional fossil-based plastics. Yet, despite their potential, bio-based plastics are mainly used in packaging and other short-lived products, and the opportunities of using bio-based plastics in durable products remain largely underexplored.

This dissertation explores how bio-based plastics can be incorporated into the development of durable products for a circular economy. It examines the opportunities, challenges, and decision points faced by product developers when working with bio-based plastics, moving beyond simple material substitution to rethinking product design and development. The dissertation provides practical guidance to support product developers in making informed, sustainable choices when developing durable, circular products with bio-based plastics.

The circular economy is increasingly acknowledged worldwide, including in healthcare. It focuses on extending the lifespan and value of products and materials by ensuring their continuous use within the system. This approach is crucial as it shifts away from the prevalent "take-use-dispose" linear model. Given the rapid growth and mounting pressures on healthcare systems, adopting a circular economy is essential to improving sustainability and ensuring broader access to healthcare.

In healthcare, particularly in low-resource settings in Sub-Saharan Africa, circular economy principles can improve access to medical devices and overall healthcare. As the global awareness of health as a fundamental human right grows, there is an increasing push towards universal health access. However, this access is heavily dependent on the availability of medical equipment and qualified medical staff. Unfortunately, medical devices and healthcare technologies are often inaccessible in low-resource settings. Not only does this undermine healthcare delivery, but it sometimes also results in environmental issues, such as the improper disposal of non-functional devices and medical waste, which leads to the loss of valuable materials.

Recent trends in medical device design are shifting from a linear model towards a circular economy approach. This shift aims to ensure that devices are robust, durable, reusable and have an extended lifespan to provide healthcare for all. However, the full implications and complexities of integrating circular economy principles into medical device design in low-resource contexts, is poorly understood. This thesis addresses these through a series of studies focused on designing and implementing medical devices in low-resource settings while incorporating circular economy principles.

The first study is a foundational study which provides a literature review of how circular economy principles have been applied in designing medical devices for low resource settings in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study highlights existing practices such as durability, maintenance, and repair that enhance the longevity of medical devices. However, it also identifies a notable gap in the consideration of refurbishment, re-manufacturing, and recycling in these designs. Building on this, the second study utilises a practical framework to design a medical device from a circular economy perspective, examining the complexities and trade-offs involved. It introduces the Chloe Syringe Extension Device (Chloe SED®), designed to provide pain relief medication during gynaecological procedures in Kenya. The study identifies trade-offs between, on the one hand, material selection, cost price, durability, reprocessing methods and costs, and on the other hand environmental impact, highlighting the need for ongoing assessment to ensure the device remains accessible, affordable, and environmentally sustainable.

The third study assesses the implementation of Chloe SED® in routine care through a large-scale clinical trial. The findings show that the device performs comparably to standard care, integrates well into existing procedures, and has potential to enhance healthcare access. This study highlights the importance of aligning medical device design with local healthcare systems to ensure effective integration and impact. The fourth study explores the designer’s journey in creating and implementing Chloe SED®. This study highlights the diverse roles a designer must assume: collaborator, facilitator, knowledge broker, policy advocate, and entrepreneur, while recognising the need to shift between these roles. The study underscores the iterative nature of the design process and the necessity for ongoing stakeholder engagement to achieve successful adoption and integration of new devices into healthcare systems.

This thesis provides an in-depth analysis of designing and implementing medical devices for low-resource settings in Sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on circular economy principles. It highlights the significance of context-specific design, the challenges of integrating new devices into routine care, and the essential roles of designers in fostering innovation and driving societal change.

In response to calls for fundamental transformation of the economy, the idea of a circular economy has emerged as a promising direction. However, in practice, this idea is still commonly understood through conceptual lenses that reflect the logic of linear and mechanistic systems. This study explores the role of conceptual metaphors in circular economy discourse, arguing that the metaphors that are used to understand the economy significantly influence the kind of solutions that one can imagine and value. This research investigates the potential of the forest metaphor to support alternative ways of conceptualising the circular economy.

The first part of this study was aimed towards the identification of current dominant metaphors in circular economy discourse. It found that the machine metaphor was the most dominant metaphor. This was followed by competitive metaphors (sports and war), the journey metaphor, and, to a limited extent, ecological metaphors. The textual analysis showed that the current academic discourse predominantly:

(1) Makes sense of a circular economy in a mechanistic way, as the sum of resource inputs and outputs.
(2) Sees the relationships between businesses in a circular economy as competitive.
(3) Makes sense of change towards a circular economy as something that happens gradually and step-by-step.

The three most dominant metaphors are also dominant in current linear economy discourse and therefore reinforce similar patterns of thought. The ecological metaphor occurred less and was identified as a potentially interesting new line of enquiry, conceptualising nonlinear, complex and dynamic features, unlike the more dominant metaphors. This led to the main research question of this thesis:

How can ecology-inspired metaphors enrich circular economy discourse?

The second part of the research investigated the implications of using an ecology-based metaphor - specifically, the forest metaphor - to support conceptual development in circular economy learning. A case study was conducted on a postgraduate workshop, where participants engaged with the forest metaphor to explore circular business. Learners found the metaphor enriching, particularly in relation to ideas that incorporate the interconnectedness of businesses and the cooperation between different entities in the economy. However, many of the insights generated were general in nature and lacked specificity.

To further the exploration, a subdomain of the metaphor was explored in more detail: the technosphere as fruit from a tree. The technosphere refers to products, components and materials that are part of the human-made and managed realm, unlike biological nutrients. Through this study, products, components, and materials were understood as fruit from a tree. Unlike the machine metaphor, which tends to frame the economy as a closed and controllable system, this metaphor suggested more open flows of resources and information. The metaphor also allows social and environmental dimensions of a circular economy to be woven together more tightly in ideas and solutions.

In the third part of the study, a learning tool was developed to support the application of the forest metaphor to circular economy education. Eighteen subdomains of the forest metaphor were identified through interviews, each relating to one of three overarching themes: wholeness of the forest, the importance of relationships, and the response to change. These subdomains were reviewed by circular economy experts, who identified potential areas of application within existing circular economy discourse. Their input informed the development of a learning tool titled Ecological Design Thinking for a Circular Economy.

The fourth and final part of the study evaluated this tool through a comparative case study. A second workshop was conducted, similar in format to that of part two, but this time including the learning tool. Participant responses and workshop outcomes were compared with those from the earlier workshop. The findings suggest that the use of the tool contributed to more detailed and concrete ideas and that learners considered the engagement with the tool more enriching.

This thesis demonstrates the potential of the forest metaphor as an ecological metaphor for circular economy discourse. This metaphor prompts a reflection on the competitive nature of business and intellectual property rights and suggests ideas in line with more collaborative, decentralised and open approaches in business. In a generative way, the metaphor allows participants to focus more on community-led and place-based approaches to innovation, which allows businesses to tune into the local context surrounding their supply chain and business model, considering both social and environmental dimensions simultaneously.
Ultimately, this research reinforces that metaphors are not merely the decoration of language but can also be a learning tool. This can be used in a reflexive way, by challenging previously unquestioned assumptions, or in a generative way, by allowing new ways of thinking and developing novel solutions.

This graduation project focuses on enhancing the sustainability of the Laerdal suction canister by developing a new reusable canister design for the LCSU, with a design emphasis on personal use. The design report comprises eight chapters, detailing the design research, iteration, and final proposed design.

This thesis explores the future of the solar mounting industry by constructing and assessing four product-scenarios. The goal was to assess how these scenarios could influence the development of a climate neutral solar mounting product by 2040.

• Standardized Mass Energy (SME): This scenario envisions a future where solar energy systems are mass-produced and standardized to efficiently meet global energy demands. The focus is on uniform, large-scale, high-efficiency solar mounting products that can be deployed rapidly. Governments and large corporations drive this scenario, prioritizing speed and efficiency in installation, while achieving climate neutral products by application of green steel.
If international cooperation remains strong and the focus on large-scale infrastructure continues. Stakeholder assessment indicates that this scenario is possible due to current market trends favouring scalability and cost-efficiency. But consolidation might eliminate their margins.
• Circular Energy (CE): This scenario prioritizes sustainability through a reuse-system for solar panels, aligning with the circular economy principles. Solar mounting services create modular, reusable systems, being climate neutral in prioritising reuse and minimising green steel production. The spatial arrangement alternates solar with green roofs and urban gardens, promoting local energy distribution. While this scenario is desirable, it faces challenges in market acceptance and requires significant shifts in political and economic frameworks. Stakeholder assessment suggests elements of this scenario could unfold, if there is a strong policy push towards circular economy from society.
• Scramble for Energy (SfE): This scenario envisions a chaotic and competitive market driven by geopolitical tensions and the need for energy security. Solar products vary in quality, with customers prioritizing affordability and speed over sustainability, leaving no securance of a climate neutral product. The spatial arrangement is also chaotic, leaving no room for nature, due to the pressures of energy scarcity and instability. The stakeholder assessment reveals that this scenario is highly likely in the near future, particularly if global energy markets become more fragmented and nations keep prioritising self-sufficiency over collaboration.
• Power to People (PtP): This scenario focuses on social equity, with solar energy being distributed to balance industry and citizen needs. With international failure in climate action, the emphasis is on domestic production and local community empowerment. Solar installations are integrated with multifunctional benefits as climate adaption or water-management, creating collective responsibility. While this scenario is highly desirable for sales, it demands significant restructuring of industry practices and societal norms. Stakeholder assessment indicates this scenario could unfold (after SfE has,) if there develops a societal movement towards communal energy equality and local wealth, supported by progressive policies.

The scenarios provided for a roadmap construction for the solar mounting company Sunbeam. By understanding potential futures, Sunbeam can strategically navigate the evolving mounting industry, balancing immediate product-demands with product interventions inspired by a long-term climate neutral vision. The roadmap allows Sunbeam to lead with a strategy of collaborations and products that stimulate envisioned system development.

Repair is an essential aspect of the circular economy and has been discussed numerously. However, the focus has been primarily on the technical possibility of repair, not on willingness to repair (WTR). As a result, many people do not consider repair an option since technical feasibility does not always translate to repair behaviour. This is especially prevalent in electronics. Therefore, this study explored opportunities to stimulate people who typically do not repair electronic devices to increase their WTR.

Seven barriers of WTR were found: awareness, desire for new products, lack of engagement, lack of trust in repair, fear for further failures, lack of clarity, and lack of attachment. Additionally, products that are less likely to be repaired are either ‘up-to-date’ (valued for their self and social identity) or ‘workhorse’ items (valued for their functionality and long lifespan). These factors influence consumer decisions about repair. The study used the I-Change model to analyse consumer behaviour and identify opportunities to stimulate WTR.

Using these four opportunities, a new interaction concept was developed. This concept aims to make people feel proud, excited, and eager to share their experiences. Similar to how when you want to show your friends how well you can drive after you get your driver’s license. This approach guided the design direction and established criteria for the final concept.

In the development phase, four concepts were discussed, and two were selected based on the criteria to be combined into one: the Made-By-You product service system (PSS). This concept allows users to design and assemble their electronics, supported by an application that centralises and streamlines information on assembly and repair. This approach aims to raise users’ awareness of the product’s components and indirectly encourage repair considerations. Providing a hub for all product-related information makes the repair process more straightforward and accessible.

A proof of concept was developed to demonstrate the feasibility of translating this concept into a tangible product. For this, a Senseo coffee machine was redesigned to fit the Made-By-You concept. The redesign involved minor design changes to enhance “assemble-ability,” but the key change was how the product was presented to the customer. The parts should arrive in preassembled units, so the assembly process does not feel long or complicated.

The assembly and repair of the product are supported by the Made-By-You application, which offers a clear method for users to gather information. It provides manuals enhanced with digital features to improve the user experience, repair diagnostic tools, recommendations, and expectations for the user journey.

After assessing the proof of concept against the criteria, it demonstrates that the Made-By-You concept can be translated into a tangible product. However, due to the project’s time constraints, a user test could not be conducted, which could have provided valuable insights into its effectiveness. Despite this limitation, this research represents progress towards enhancing WTR. Future studies could expand upon and test the concept, while other designers might leverage the identified barriers and opportunities to design their own solutions.

Each year, billions of medical injections are administered through the use of self-injectors. These devices allow patients to self-administer their injectable medication. Globally, aging populations coupled with a rise in chronic diseases and pressures on healthcare systems are leading to increased prescriptions of biologics and therapeutics to manage these conditions.
This trend is resulting in steady growth in the popularity of self-injection devices. However, the vast majority of these injectors are single-use disposable devices, contributing significantly to the waste generated within the healthcare sector. The circular economy, rooted in principles of designing out waste and using waste as a resource, might offer a solution. Possible circular strategies include reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling. However, given the complexity of the healthcare supply chain and the stringent focus on safety and hygiene within the industry, these strategies still face challenges that need to be overcome.

This thesis explored the redesign of auto-injectors to integrate circular economy (CE) principles, focusing on the Ypsomate auto-injector. Assigned by pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson (J&J), who have shown interest in developing circular systems for self-injectors, this study aimed to make CE design principles tangible for J&J. Key research questions addressed included identifying barriers and opportunities for CE in disposable self-injectors and applying potential circular strategies to redesign the Ypsomate.

The project followed a creative problem-solving approach involving literature research, expert interviews, co-creation and a field visit to J&J's innovation site. Findings highlighted industry trends focus on patient safety and usability as well as several sustainability developments. However, end-of-life design considerations remain underexplored. The study identified major barriers to CE integration, such as the challenge of combining safety with reuse strategies due to the low value and high hygiene criticality of auto-injectors.

The most promising opportunity was found in the safe, cost-effective separation of hygiene-critical from non-critical components, reducing reprocessing requirements. An in-depth product analysis of the Ypsomate identified relevant circular strategies: Design for Recycling, Disassembly, Component Reuse, and Extended Life. A redesign concept, the MediLoop was developed and prototyped to demonstrate the feasibility of significantly improving CE strategies for end-of-life recovery.

The existing CoreLine office luminaire has been redesigned for improved recycling. Shredding experiments have shed light on the recyclability of the current product. The main issues have been identified and are solved in the proposed redesign.

Besides improved recyclability, the proposed redesign offers additional benefits to Signify. Replacing the steel of the backplate and the aluminum of the frame by polystyrene is expected to significantly reduce the cost price of the product. Also, moving away from metals can make Signify less vulnerable to potential metal scarcity in the future.

An important challenge in further development of the concept is the issue of flame retardants and their impact on recyclability of the product. Given that the intention of redesigning the CoreLine luminaire was to improve its recyclability, it would be a shame if the redesigned product would actually be worse for recycling due to flame retardants. A range of directions to address this problem have been proposed.

Lastly, a set of guidelines have been created which serve to aid designers in designing recyclable luminaires. These guidelines are based on all the learnings acquired throughout the project regarding component connection and material selection.

This research project explores the environmental issue of microplastic pollution, specifically focusing on its release from shoe soles into natural ecosystems. Despite increasing global awareness of microplastics, the particular impact of footwear, especially those used for outdoor activities in natural areas like trail running, has been largely overlooked. Microplastics released in these settings can directly impact ecosystems, affecting wildlife and soil health. This study investigates the potential of bio-based, biodegradable plastics, which can decompose harmlessly in soil, as an alternative material for trail running shoe soles. The aim is to mitigate harmful microplastic pollution and explore how the design of trail running shoes can be adapted to incorporate bio-based, biodegradable plastics.

The project begins by examining the problem of microplastic pollution, its origins, consequences, and the role of footwear. It distinguishes the difference between bio-based and petroleum-based plastics and the role of bio-based biodegradable and compostable plastics in embracing a circular economy. Through exploratory research, design iterations, prototyping, and critical analysis, this study evaluates the feasibility of using bio-based, biodegradable plastics in manufacturing trail running shoe soles. In fact, shoe soles have been identified as the primary source of microplastic pollution due to the constant abrasion with the ground.

A research was conducted in order to identify a bio-based soil-biodegradable plastic which could replace the currently used synthetic rubber. In terms of performance and environmental sustainability, PHA stands as the closest in meeting these criteria, yet it is not fully suitable for shoe soles application due to its limited flexibility.
Nevertheless, the project conceptualises “BioStep”, a trail running shoe that features a replaceable biodegradable outsole. The usage of such an outsole does not release any harmful microplastic when used during outdoor activities or in the decomposition process at the end of its lifespan.

This project sets the basis for the development of bio-based soil-biodegradable shoe soles for trail running shoes. Further research will be needed to identify a ready-to-use material and to address its performance in running scenarios.
Finally, this study emphasizes the need for collaborative efforts among designers, manufacturers, and material scientists to mitigate microplastic pollution and to set the path towards more sustainable footwear.

Plastics have become indispensable in modern life due to their versatility and affordability. However, their widespread use has resulted in far-reaching environmental damage, including the accumulation of plastic waste, fossil fuel depletion, and significant greenhouse gas emissions. Bio-based plastics have been proposed as a sustainable, circular solution to the environmental issues associated with plastics. However, bio-based plastics are not implicitly sustainable or circular. These aspects are influenced by how a plastic is produced and how it is recovered at end-of-life, implying that careful attention needs to be paid to material development and product design. This thesis explores the sustainability and circularity of bio-based plastics by looking at: how they are perceived by value chain actors, potential recovery pathways in a circular economy, and environmental impact.


Although bio-based plastics have the potential to be sustainable, the emissions associated with producing them depend heavily on the biomass sourcing. At the same time, bio-based plastics are not de-facto biodegradable and thus efficient recovery at end-of-life needs to be guaranteed. Circular product design with bio-based plastics requires careful consideration of biomass sourcing and recovery. Although much information regarding these aspects is still missing, the research presented in this dissertation provides some guidelines for circular product design with bio-based plastics. In order to reduce environmental impacts, bio-based plastics should be produced with agricultural by-products or with biomass types with a high conversion efficiency. Biomass for bio-based plastics should be cultivated with minimal use of land, water, chemicals and fossil fuels. Environmental impacts can be reduced further by using renewable energy in the production process. Product designers should also consider what recovery pathway they want to target at end-of-life of a product. The plastic composition and product architecture need to reflect the targeted recovery pathway.

Though cycling as a transportation method is widely seen as a sustainable method, professional cycling and racing are not. Though the first calls for sustainable action are made and the first efforts start to appear, not much has changed yet in the complex world of professional cycling.
This report describes the design of a sustainability strategy and plan for BEAT Cycling Club, a continental cycling team. As an innovative organisation that was founded to break through the status quo in professional cycling the sustainability journey fits BEAT. As one of the first teams taking sustainability seriously, the strategy helps BEAT to increase the quality of their sustainability actions beyond the ‘low-hanging fruits’ they have been tackling already.
The difficulty of starting a sustainability project is tackled by using the systemic design framework of the Design Council (2021) to guide innovation with a complex system like sustainability. The internal feeling of responsibility for sustainability of BEAT Cycling Club can be tackled by designing a strategy through a continuously diverging and converging process.
To help understand the sustainability context for BEAT Cycling Club and to guide the direction of the strategy, a (fast-track) life-cycle analysis is conducted. The results of this analysis are a set of emission hotspots: the actions and areas where most of BEAT’s emissions and environmental impact occur. These hotspots are used to further shape a strategy to tackle them.
This strategy is built through the design roadmapping methodology, resulting in a strategic and tactical roadmap. These are based on three horizons in which the role for BEAT in sustainability changes. These roadmaps are substantiated with a playbook that guides BEAT through the strategy and provides more detailed information about the steps that need to be taken. The playbook and roadmaps are not only strategic assets but are also important for BEAT to communicate their strategy with partners and other stakeholders.

Biogenic reefs built by mussels, oysters or other reef-building species are one of the most important biodiversity hotspots for estuarine and marine ecosystems providing food, shelter, and breeding grounds for a wide array of species. In the North Sea, one of the most important biogenic reef builders and ecosystem engineers is the European Flat Oyster. However, due to harmful fishing practices, habitat destruction and diseases, this once-abundant bivalve is now ecologically extinct and cannot provide crucial ecosystem services. If left without active intervention, oyster reefs have too few chances of regeneration, due to the current state of the seafloor in the North Sea and too few individuals in the environment. Therefore, active intervention is needed to bring back the shellfish reefs in The North Sea. Offshore windmill farms provide a refuge for marine ecosystems from fishing activities, which poses an important opportunity for biogenic reef restoration practices.

To understand the context of biogenic reef restoration better, multiple interviews with marine biology and ecology experts from ARK were conducted followed by a literature review and two field trips related to young oyster deployment to The North Sea. The gained insights were used to create a list of 12 design criteria grouped into four categories: Oyster survival, Scalability, Broader ecological success, Handling & deployment. According to these criteria, most of the current practices underperform in scalability due to high manufacturing, and operational costs, or provide inefficient oyster protection which hampers the success of shellfish reef restorations. Therefore, the design challenge to improve scalability and oyster protection has been chosen as the priority.

Multiple design directions and ideas have been explored using Research by Design approach while employing Whole System Mapping and Biomimicry methods with Low- and high-fidelity prototypes. Using an iterative approach and evaluating the design ideas, the solution space has been narrowed down to a final design, the unit: two steel frame gabions are connected in a double-diamond position and placed between two display pallets with all assembly tightly secured with a cotton lashing. Multiple assemblies are connected in a row with a leading rope attached to an anchor. When the ship sails, the anchor is thrown out on the seafloor and eventually pulls all units down to the seafloor. The final design was evaluated according to the same 12 criteria. In comparison to previously discussed solutions, the final design is more scalable in terms of costs and time for larger marine restoration areas and focuses on finding balance throughout the design criteria instead of being only effective in certain aspects. In addition to introducing back the Flat Oysters, the new structures provide various microhabitats for a wide array of other benthic species to grow or shelter from the water currents, amplifying positive effects on the marine ecosystem. Several theoretical and structural integrity tests have been done to determine the effectiveness of the new design. Further research, such as offshore field studies, is needed to determine how this new design affects young oyster survival and other benthic species.

This graduation project explored how the circular economy could be implemented for single-use surgical devices like the endocutter. Design for reprocessing appears to be the best strategy, but modular solutions should be considered when reprocessing the entire device is not feasible. The project followed a transition management approach; a sustainable future is envisioned for the industry, and through backcasting a radical but short-term feasible solution is designed which could help us move towards this future. Conceptual service design “MedFlo” helps healthcare facilities overcome barriers in the implementation of modular devices into their workflow and logistics, by providing access to a safe and complete inventory of devices. MedFlo can help decrease the environmental and waste footprint of medical devices, create more resilient supply chains, stimulate circular design initiatives and serves as an example of how the circular economy can be implemented in the MedTech industry.

This study explores the environmental sustainability of digital health devices, specifically smart pillboxes, which are designed to help patients manage their medication, improve their health, and reduce medication non-adherence. The use of such devices has increased electronic and plastic waste and has resulted in a higher demand for critical raw materials, raising questions about their potential environmental impacts. The Digital Health in Circular Economy (DiCE) project aims to address these issues by examining the environmental sustainability of digital health devices and providing solutions to reduce their impact on the environment. This research uses Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Disassembly Map, Recovery Assessment, and Circular Product Readiness methods to assess the environmental impact of smart pillboxes at both product and functional levels. The study examines the potential environmental impact of the product's materials, production, use, and end-of-life disposal. The research suggests improvements to increase the product's environmental sustainability, such as the use of screws instead of snap fits to attach the sub-assemblies, fixating the battery in a designated spot to prevent detaching, and promoting environmentally desirable habits, such as prolonging battery life and guiding end-of-life recovery of the product. The study concludes that there is potential for further improvement to increase the product's environmental sustainability, which could lead to an improved overall health. While the current findings do not lead to absolute conclusions, this research provides a basis for comparing the environmental impact (in DALY) and benefits of digital health devices (in QALY).

The goal of this graduation project was to investigate if 3D printing could serve as a promising alternative for manufacturing spare parts needed for the re-manufacturing of diesel injection pumps. This project was conducted under the EU ReCiPSS project, along with the support of Robert Bosch GmbH. The proposition was investigated on three levels and posed the following research questions:

1.Can 3D printing produce spare parts for the pump at an acceptable cost and quality level compared to the existing manufacturing methods? (Feasibility)
2.Does spare part 3D printing make business sense for the Automotive Aftermarket Division of Bosch to pursue as a remanufacturing strategy? (Viability)
3.Is 3D printing for spare parts more environmentally friendly compared to the existing manufacturing methods? (Sustainability)

To answer these questions for the entire VP30 pump and fuel injection pumps in general would have been difficult. Thus, tools such as the Disassembly Map and the Hotspot Mapping tool were used to identify potential parts within the pump for which this initial investigation could take place. Using functional importance and environmental impact as criteria, the selection of two parts, an aluminium Locking Cover and an alloy steel Cam Plate were made.

Visits to the remanufacturing facility and Bosch’s 3D Competence Centre opened doors to investigate the technology, its limitations, organisational barriers, and future potential. The metal printed parts arrived and were analysed on the three pillars mentioned.

The investigation found that metal 3D printed parts can meet the desired performance specifications. However, post-processing treatment such as annealing, case hardening and some machining might be required for specialised functions. The costs of metal 3D printing are not yet competitive with conventional manufacturing and are viable only for specific scenarios. These scenarios take the shape of lack of suppliers, urgent part demand, high tooling costs, and so on. Moreover, the non-competitive cost also brings to fore the organisational barriers within Bosch. Primarily, the automotive release procedure which requires significant investment of time and money to make a change. Lastly, on the sustainability front, middle volume production (~200-1000 units) was shown to be more sustainable than conventional manufacturing for the same volume.

The investigation shows that in 2022, 3D printing metal spare parts is feasible but needs specific scenarios to be viable and sustainable. However, with improvements in technology and greater acceptance of 3D printing as a core industry technology, these pains can be resolved and allow for better and long-lasting products with lesser environmental impact. The advent of the 2030’s will be exciting in this regard.