Port terminals, especially their reefer container yards, face surging power demands. Efficient reefer charging is critical for port sustainability and efficiency, as it helps reduce peak energy loads and total energy consumption. This requires consideration of reefer characteristics, temperature control requirements, time-variant energy prices, port power distribution network and environmental factors such as ambient temperature and sunlight. Optimising the charging power and internal temperature of reefers is therefore essential. This study introduces mathematical models to optimise two efficient charging schemes for reefers: flexible power charging and on/off power charging. Internet-of-Things (IoT) technologies can enable tailored optimisation strategies for reefer charging by facilitating information sharing among reefers and the charging planning system. This study also proposes a cyber-physical system for IoT that allows these charging schemes to be implemented. Using data from existing ports, the results demonstrate that the optimised reefer charging plan significantly reduces energy costs and alleviates peak energy consumption, consistently outperforming the baseline policy. In the optimised plan, charging periods are slightly adjusted based on energy price in each period as part of a demand response strategy, and intermittent charging is actively used for peak energy shaving. The study also quantifies the positive impact of roof shade installation. Findings provide actionable insights for refrigerated goods.

Recent supply chain disruptions and crisis response policies (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic and the Red Sea crisis) have highlighted the role of container terminals as crucial and scarce resources in the global economy. To tackle these challenges, the industry increasingly aims for advanced operational collaboration among multiple stakeholders, as demonstrated by the ambitions of the recently founded Gemini alliance. Nonetheless, collaborative planning models often disregard the requirements and incentives of stakeholders or simply solve idealized small instances. Motivated by the above, we design novel and effective collaboration mechanisms among terminal operators that share the resources (berths and quay cranes). We first define the collaborative berth allocation problem and propose a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model to minimize the total cost of all terminals, referred to as the coalitional costs. We adopt the core and the nucleolus concepts from cooperative game theory to allocate the coalitional costs such that stakeholders have stable incentives to collaborate. To obtain solutions for realistic instance sizes, we propose two exact row-generation-based core and nucleolus algorithms that are versatile and can be used for various combinatorial optimization problems. To the best of our knowledge, the proposed row-generation approach for the nucleolus is the first of its kind for combinatorial optimization problems. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the collaborative berth allocation approach achieves up to 28.44% of cost savings, increasing the solution space in disruptive situations, while the proposed core and nucleolus solutions guarantee the collaboration incentives for individual terminals.

With the growing demand for high-quality mobility services, transportation service providers need to offer transit services that not only fulfill passengers’ basic travel needs but also ensure an appealing quality of service. During rush hours, fleet sizes are often insufficient to cater to all passenger preferences on service quality, such as ride time and number of co-riders, leading to the sacrifice of service quality for some passengers. Motivated by these practices, we investigate a first-mile ridesharing problem incorporating passenger service quality preferences. This problem involves intricate decisions about the match between requests and vehicles, vehicle routing, and route schedules. To solve this problem, we first develop an arc-based mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model for this problem. For obtaining near-optimal solutions within practical computation time requirements, we reformulate the MILP model as a trip-based set-partitioning model and propose a math-heuristic algorithm. This algorithm builds upon the column-generation algorithm and tailored bidirectional labeling algorithms with novel dominance rules. Additionally, we introduce a proposition to determine the best schedule for each ridesharing route. To obtain the optimal solution for large-scale instances, we introduce a branch-and-price exact algorithm. Computational experiments based on real-world road networks and randomly generated instances confirm the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed approaches, demonstrating that the proposed matheuristic finds near-optimal solutions within 40 s for all instances. The results also show that the presented approach significantly improves the quality of first-mile services for prioritized riders, with the ratio of satisfied requests increasing by 23% even when the fleet is generally insufficient.

Microscopic simulation is an established tool in traffic engineering and research, where aggregated traffic performance measures are inferred from the simulation of individual agents. Additionally, measures describing the safety and efficiency of road user interactions gain importance for recent developments such as automated vehicles and urban cycling. However, current simulation frameworks model interactions including cyclists only with limited realism. To address this issue, we propose to bring bicycle dynamics to traffic simulation. We demonstrate that a novel reformulation of the social force framework can create input signals for a controlled inverted pendulum bicycle model and thereby enable a fully two-dimensional open space simulation of cyclist interactions. The inverted pendulum model introduces the need to stabilize the bicycle as a constraint to the reactive behavior of simulated cyclists. Furthermore, it enables the simulation of countersteering and weaving for stabilization. Our cyclist social forces have anisotropic force fields with respect to relative interaction position and orientation to describe the varying interaction constellations in open space. With these models, we simulate five single- and multi-cyclist test cases and show that the generated trajectories notably differ from results obtained from a 2D bicycle model without lean angle simulation. Measurements of the maximum lateral path deviation and post-encroachment time show that these differences are relevant for typical applications. Our work demonstrates the potential of introducing physics-based realistic bicycle dynamics to the microscopic simulation of individual road user interactions and the fundamental capability of our reformulated cyclist social forces to do so. Going further, we plan to calibrate and validate our model based on naturalistic cycling data to support the initial results of this work.

The COVID-19 pandemic poses an unprecedented challenge for public transport systems. The capacity of transport systems has been significantly reduced because of the social distancing measures. Therefore, new avenues to increase the resilience of public urban mobility need to be explored. In this work, we investigate the integration of bike sharing and public transport systems to compensate for limited public transport capacity under the disruptive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. As a first step, we develop a data analysis model to integrate the demand of the two underlying systems. Next, we build an optimization model for the design and operation of hybrid mixed-fleet bike sharing systems. We analyze the case of the subway and public bike sharing systems in Milan to assess this approach. We find that the bike sharing system (in its current state) can only compensate for a minor share of the public transport capacity, as the needs in fleet and station capacity are very high. However, the resilience of public urban mobility further increases when new design concepts for the bike sharing system are considered. An extension to a hybrid free-floating bike and docked e-bike system doubled the covered demand of the system. An extension of the station capacity of about 37% yields an additional increase of the covered demand by 6.5%–7.5%. On the other hand, such a hybrid mixed-fleet bike sharing system requires many stations and a relatively large fleet to provide the required mobility capacity, even at low demand requirements.

Airport buses play a crucial role in addressing the last-mile problem of air travel, especially in cities and countries lacking inner-city rail transit systems. Nevertheless, airport buses are currently witnessing a decline in ridership due to drawbacks such as long departure intervals, inflexible stops, and considerable distances between stops. Consequently, delivering high-quality airport bus services has become a pressing concern for public transport operators. Motivated by new flexible buses and ride-sharing services, this paper explores a flexible airport bus service that integrates ride-sharing services for passengers traveling from bus stops to their destinations. This problem entails integrated decisions involving bus stop selection, passenger assignment to drop-off bus stops, as well as bus and ride-sharing routing. Accordingly, this problem presents more challenges in decision-making than traditional flexible bus or ride-sharing routing problems. We first develop an arc-based mixed-integer linear programming model. Subsequently, we design a double decomposition math-heuristic algorithm that builds upon logic-based Benders decomposition and column generation algorithms to obtain a near-optimal solution within practical computation time limits for practical-scale instances. Additionally, we implement an adaptive large neighborhood search algorithm to evaluate the solution quality of this math-heuristic algorithm and to solve large-scale instances. To validate the effectiveness of both the model and the algorithms, we conduct numerical experiments using instances derived from Shenzhen airport bus lines. The experimental results demonstrate that the flexible service mode offers significant advantages in reducing both passenger ride time and vehicle mileage over traditional airport bus or taxi modes.

The burden of first-mile connection to public transit stations is a key barrier that discourages riders from taking public transportation. Public transit agencies typically operate a modest fleet of vehicles to provide first-mile services due to the high operating costs, thus failing to adequately meet the first-mile travel demands, especially during peak hours. At the same time, private cars are underutilized and have a lot of idle time. With the emergence of self-driving vehicles, new opportunities for addressing the current dilemma arise, such as integrating idle private self-driving vehicles to provide first-mile services, which is beneficial for public transportation agencies to provide high-quality services at low costs. This study investigates the first-mile ridesharing problem in which public transit agencies utilize idle privately-owned autonomous vehicles to dynamically inflate their fleet. This problem is more challenging in decision-making than conventional first-mile problems, as it involves decisions on heterogeneous fleet scheduling, vehicle routing, and time scheduling, all while taking into account the service quality for riders. To address this problem, an arc-based mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model and a trip-based set-partitioning model are developed, both aiming to minimize total operational costs. To identify promising trips, we propose a tailored labeling algorithm with a novel dominance rule, along with a time window shift algorithm to determine the best schedule. To yield high-quality solutions in a short computation time, a tailored column-generation matheuristic algorithm is introduced. A branch-and-price exact algorithm and an adaptive large neighborhood search algorithm are developed to assess the matheuristic algorithm. Numerical experiments are conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed models and algorithms. Experiments also show that this kind of ridesharing service can provide low-cost and high-quality services for the first-mile problem.

One of the major challenges in the development of Automated Driving is its assessment. It is expected that Automated Vehicles behave differently than human drivers. Therefore, mixed human-robot traffic will yield different and new driving situations as human-only traffic. It is important to know how this mixed traffic will change the composition of traffic situations to be able to quantify the impact Automated Vehicles will have on everyday traffic. This paper presents a methodology on how to find metrics that quantify traffic in order to detect changes in the traffic space that will come with the introduction of Automated Vehicles. Additionally, this methodology provides tools to help with the validation of virtual testing platforms such as simulation.

Increasing online retail has resulted in increased automation in order picking systems, leading to new challenges and opportunities in task scheduling. The job-shop scheduling problem is an optimization problem essential in such systems, but existing JSP literature often overlooks workplace fatigue, which harms employees’ well-being and costs U.S. employers up to €127 billion annually. In this work, we propose fatigue consideration in the job-shop scheduling problem in a cobotic order picking system to mitigate its negative effects. We present a new bi-objective mixed integer nonlinear programming problem formulation that considers worker fatigue and productivity during schedule optimisation. To put the results of simulated optimisation in perspective, we experimentally validate the fatigue model and scheduling results in a real operation. The mathematical model finds solutions that conventional single-objective optimisation cannot, allowing fractional fatigue distribution improvements more than 4x larger than the decrease in productivity they require in 53% of the considered virtual cases. The experiments show that our predictive fatigue model has an average RMSE of 2.20 kcal/min in estimating energy expenditure rates compared to heart rate measurements. It also shows a low correlation, meaning it is unfit for application. On the other hand, fatigue-conscious schedules show no clear benefit regarding measured and perceived fatigue. However, the scheduling model could also use heart rate measurements that do not show these inaccuracies. Our study highlights the need to further develop and validate the mathematical formulation and fatigue model and extend to other human factors and indirect fatigue effects.

Ensuring the accuracy of the estimated time of arrival (ETA) information for ships approaching ports and inland terminals is increasingly critical today. Waterway transportation plays a vital role in freight transportation and has a significant ecological impact. Improving the accuracy of ETA predictions can enhance the reliability of inland waterway shipping, increasing the acceptance of this eco-friendly mode of transportation. This study compares the industry-standard approach for predicting the ETA based on average travel times with a neural network (NN) trained using real-world historical data. This study generates and trains two NN models using historical ship position data. These models are then assessed and contrasted with the conventional method of calculating average travel times for two specific areas in the Netherlands and Germany. The results indicate by using specific input features, the quality of ETA predictions can improve by an average of 20.6% for short trips, 4.8% for medium-length trips, and 13.4% for long-haul journeys when compared to the average calculation.

This paper investigates a novel routing problem of a multi-robot station in a manufacturing cell. In the existing literature, the objective is to minimize the cycle time or energy consumption separately. The routing problem considered in this paper aims to reduce the cycle time and energy consumption jointly for each robot while avoiding collisions between these robots. For this routing problem, we propose a new flexible time-space network model that allows us to reduce energy consumption while minimizing the cycle time. The corresponding optimization problem is Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP). For addressing its computational complexity, this paper designs a metaheuristic algorithm tailored to the studied problem and proposes an ϵ-constraint algorithm to study the trade-off between these two objectives. We conduct industrially relevant simulation experiments of case studies to show its effectiveness, in comparison to a conventional method, two state-of-the-art solvers, and two commonly-used metaheuristics. The results show that the proposed methodology can reduce energy consumption by up to 30% without compromising the cycle time. Meanwhile, the proposed algorithm can provide efficient solutions within a reasonable computation time. Note to Practitioners-This paper is motivated by the problem of improving energy efficiency when routing cooperative robots in a manufacturing station. In current approaches for routing multi-robot stations, the cycle time and energy consumption are minimized separately. This paper focuses on the movement of the robot end-effector and its connected joint and suggests a new approach to minimize these two objectives jointly by proposing a new mathematical model. The resulting planning problem is computationally intractable. A customized metaheuristic algorithm is thus designed for efficiently solving this planning problem. Our meta-heuristic algorithm is integrated with the ϵ-constraint method to study the relationship between these two objectives. Simulation experiments suggest that this approach can reduce energy consumption considerably, for the shortest cycle time, compared with the current approaches. In future research, the movements of multi-joints will be investigated whereby 3-D collision-free trajectory planning will be considered.

Storage space management in bulk terminals has become an important focus for research and practical operation due to the increasing demand for bulk cargo and limited storage space in stockyards. The study of storage space management in dry bulk terminals is less thorough and comprehensive, and the existing research investigates the storage space allocation problem with other operational problems like berth allocation problems, but little environmental consideration has been incorporated. We investigate the storage space allocation problem with the consideration of stacker-reclaimer assignment and mist cannon operation to deal with the dust generated during material stacking. A mixed integer programming model has been established with the aim of minimizing energy consumption to reflect the pursuit of the growing emphasis on climate-neutral operations and sustainability. We test the effectiveness of the model by conducting computational experiments. We use the commercial solver CPLEX to obtain the optimal solutions for most of the test instances. Useful managerial insights extracted from the computational results may serve as a reference for storage space management in dry bulk terminals.

A Dynamically Configurable Autonomous Vehicle (DCAV) is a new class of autonomous vehicle concept using a separable design of lower and upper parts—carriers and modules—to allow more flexible operation. A fleet of DCAVs consists of a set of carriers and a set of compatible modules. Different, possibly crowd-sourced, modules can increase the number of use-cases for DCAVs, possibly leading to disruptive changes in the transport sector. This study investigates the use of DCAV system operating on an Autonomous Mobility-on-Demand (AMoD) scenario, combining passenger and freight transport flows. The novel problem is denoted as the Dynamically Configurable Autonomous Vehicle Pickup and Delivery Problem (DCAVPDP). We propose a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model aiming to minimize DCAV-fleet size and distance traveled. We compare the performance of a DCAV fleet to the performance of a typical single-purpose fleet (consisting of dedicated passenger and freight vehicles). The numerical study, with 360 instances for each fleet type, considering four people-and-freight demand distribution scenarios, the inclusion of ridesharing, module-and-carrier (de)coupling locations, and different simulation horizon lengths, shows that the proposed modular DCAV system can fulfill a mixed people-and-freight demand using, on average, 18.77% fewer carriers than a regular AMoD system comprised of single-purpose vehicles while increasing on-duty fleet utilization by 4.82%.

Travel to intercity transportation hubs, such as railway stations and airports, can be the most troublesome and inefficient part of the entire air/railway travel journey, as travelers often carry large luggage and have stringent arrival time requirements. Taking public transportation, such as metro and bus services, is inconvenient to carry luggage and less reliable in arrival time while taking taxi services could be less economical. As a result, providing reliable and convenient yet economical on-demand first-mile services for travelers to intercity transportation hubs is essential. This paper proposes a ridesharing approach for the first-mile transport system for travelers heading towards the intercity transportation hub and develops a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model with the objective of minimizing the total operating costs for ridesharing service operators. The MILP model considers (1) large luggage that may occupy seats when the car trunk is not large enough to place them; (2) passengers’ requirements on arrival time and ride time; and (3) travel time uncertainty ensuring that riders’ arrival time and ride time can be satisfied. A tailored adaptive large neighborhood search algorithm with an acceleration strategy is developed for obtaining robust near-optimal solutions within a reasonable time. To assess the solution quality, the MILP model is reformulated as a set-partitioning model, and the column generation algorithm is leveraged to determine a tight lower bound; a greedy algorithm is introduced to obtain an upper bound. Computational experiments on Shanghai South Railway Station demonstrate that ridesharing is an effective strategy for reducing overall travel costs while meeting the first-mile travel demand. In addition, it is essential to consider luggage and travel time uncertainty for determining ridesharing schemes.

Modern ports face significant challenges as strategic nodes of global supply chains, being responsible for the coordination of inbound and outbound flows at deep-sea and in hinterland transport corridors. Digitization and the adoption of disruptive technologies can help ports to tide over operational challenges. Automated Ground Vehicles (AGVs) are an integral part of operations at many modern ports, especially inside container terminals. With the shift to automated transport outside of the terminal areas, these AGVs may form platoons to establish an efficient port hinterland transport corridor. In this work, we propose a new robust optimization approach to assess the time and cost-efficiency of applying such AGV platoons in a container pickup and delivery problem. We develop a bi-objective mixed-integer programming model, which simultaneously minimizes time and cost elements, and also considers emissions. Each transportation task can be carried out by AGVs or conventional trucks, while the number of available vehicles for each mode is uncertain (as they are used to connect different modalities of container transport). The robust optimization model is based on an ellipsoidal uncertainty set to handle this uncertainty and an augmented epsilon constraint method to obtain Pareto-optimal solutions for this multi-objective problem. The developed framework is evaluated in two case studies: the Port of Rotterdam in The Netherlands and the Port of Valparaíso in Chile, with different traveling distances in corridors to a dry port (200 km) and a pre-terminal (11 km), respectively. The results indicate that the new direct delivery scheme by AGV platoons is significantly more cost- and time-efficient than the benchmark and provides a low-carbon emission transportation mode. While the benefits of decreased dwell times (56% on average) and carbon emissions (on average by 10%) are similar for short and long traveling distances, the savings in cost increase (from 4.9% to 8%) with the increased distance in the Rotterdam case.

The trends of autonomous transportation and mobility on demand in line with large numbers of requests increasingly call for decentralized vehicle routing optimization. Multi-agent systems (MASs) allow to model fully autonomous decentralized decision making, but are rarely considered in current decision support approaches. We propose a multi-agent approach in which autonomous vehicles are modeled as independent decision makers that locally interact with auctioneers for transportation orders. The developed MAS finds solutions for a realistic routing problem in which multiple pickup and delivery alternatives are possible per order. Although information sharing is significantly restricted, the MAS results in better solutions than a centralized Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search with full information sharing on large problem instances where computation time is limited.

Current mobility services cannot compete on equal terms with self-owned mobility products concerning service quality. Because of supply and demand imbalances, ridesharing users invariably experience delays, price surges, and rejections. Traditional approaches often fail to respond to demand fluctuations adequately because service levels are, to some extent, bounded by fleet size. With the emergence of autonomous vehicles, however, the characteristics of mobility services change and new opportunities to overcome the prevailing limitations arise. In this paper, we consider an autonomous ridesharing problem in which idle vehicles are hired on-demand in order to meet the service-level requirements of a heterogeneous user base. In the face of uncertain demand and idle vehicle supply, we propose a learning-based optimization approach that uses the dual variables of the underlying assignment problem to iteratively approximate the marginal value of vehicles at each time and location under different availability settings. These approximations are used in the objective function of the optimization problem to dispatch, rebalance, and occasionally hire idle third-party vehicles in a high-resolution transportation network of Manhattan, New York City. The results show that the proposed policy outperforms a reactive optimization approach in a variety of vehicle availability scenarios while hiring fewer vehicles. Moreover, we demonstrate that mobility services can offer strict service-level contracts to different user groups featuring both delay and rejection penalties.