State-of-the-art intracortical neural recording and stimulation systems rely on subdural implants tethered to a cranial implant which itself has a wireless power and data link to the outside world [1] (Fig. 6.2.1). However, this tethered configuration poses challenges such as scarring and potential damage to the surrounding tissue due to strain and micromotions, making this approach unsuitable for chronical implants [2]. Consequently, there is growing interest in wireless connections between cranial and subdural implants. This paper focuses on wireless powering between implants, traversing the dura and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tissue layers over distances of 0.5 to 1cm (transdural powering). With modern burr-hole craniotomy, the hole drilled in the skull is 6mm in diameter, limiting the available size for the TX. Moreover, the power dissipation of the TX must be low to keep tissue heating below 1°C [3]. RF and optical modalities suffer from higher attenuation in tissue compared to ultrasound (0.6dB/cm/MHz) [4]. Furthermore, for transdural powering, power losses from reflections at medium interfaces (e.g., skull) are avoided, making ultrasound (US) a prime candidate for efficient in-body wireless power transfer. US is also preferable to inductive powering since US beam steering up to large angles (>45°) is needed to maximize power delivery and compensate for brain micromotions of up to ±4mm [5] and misalignment during surgery. However, prior art US driving systems either use single-phase transducer driving [6, 7], incapable of beam steering, or use class D drivers with low power transfer efficiency (PTE) [8, 9]. A phased array with increased driving efficiency was presented in [10], but it cannot perform beam steering without grating lobes that can be eliminated with miniature transducers with a pitch close to λ/2. To facilitate direct integration between CMOS and the transducer array, the CMOS driving units should also be pitch matched [8, 9].

Photoacoustic tomography defines new challenges for ultrasound detection compared to ultrasonography. To address these challenges, a sensitive, small, scalable, and broadband optomechanical ultrasound sensor (OMUS) has been developed. The OMUS is an on-chip optical ultrasound sensor, using optical interferometric ultrasound detection. It consists of an acoustic membrane on top of an optical ring resonator that modulates the optical ring resonance with high efficiency enabled by an innovative optomechanical waveguide. Raster scanning photoacoustic tomography has been demonstrated with a single-element OMUS. Based on performance and form factor, the OMUS combined with passive optical multiplexing may enable new applications in photoacoustic imaging.