Nanoparticle- (NP-) doped optical fibres show the potential to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and thus the sensitivity of optical fibre strain detection for structural health monitoring. In this paper, our previous experimental/simulation study is extended to a design study for strain monitoring. 100 nm spherical gold NPs were randomly seeded in the optical fibre core to increase the intensity of backscattered light. Backscattered light spectra were obtained in different wavelength ranges around the infrared C-band and for different gauge lengths. Spectral shift values were obtained by cross-correlation of the spectra before and after strain change. The results showed that the strain accuracy has a positive correlation with the relative spectral sensitivity and that the strain precision decreases with increasing noise. Based on the simulated results, a formula for the sensitivity of the NP-doped optical fibre sensor was obtained using an aerospace case study to provide realistic strain values. An improved method is proposed to increase the accuracy of strain detection based on increasing the relative spectral sensitivity, and the results showed that the error was reduced by about 50%, but at the expense of a reduced strain measurement range and more sensitivity to noise. These results contribute to the better application of NP-doped optical fibres for strain monitoring.

To move towards a condition-based maintenance practice for aircraft structures, design of reliable health management methodologies is required. Development of diagnostic methodologies is commonly realised on simplified sample structures with assumptions that methodologies can be adapted for application to realistic aircraft structures under in-service conditions. Yet such actual applications are not conducted. In this work, we study the development of diagnostic methodologies to training structures and their application to dissimilar testing structures. A heterogeneous population is considered, consisting of single-stiffener composite panels for methodology development and training and a multi-stiffener composite panel for application and testing. Characteristics as its composite material, lay-up, and temperature condition are constant while topologies and applied loads differ between the dissimilar structures. Damage in the structural panels is monitored on multiple diagnostic levels using a variety of structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques, including acoustic emission and distributed strain sensing. Specifically, we develop diagnostic methods for localising and monitoring disbond growth after impact using strain data collected during fatigue testing of multiple single-stiffener panels and apply these for disbond monitoring in an upscaled version of a multi-stiffener panel. In this manner, this study aids in the maturement and application of SHM methodologies to realistic aircraft structures.

A health indicator (HI) is a valuable index demonstrating the health level of an engineering system or structure, which is a direct intermediate connection between raw signals collected by structural health monitoring (SHM) methods and prognostic models for remaining useful life estimation. An appropriate HI should conform to prognostic criteria, i.e., monotonicity, trendability, and prognosability, that are commonly utilized to measure the HI's quality. However, constructing such a HI is challenging, particularly for composite structures due to their vulnerability to complex damage scenarios. Data-driven models and deep learning are powerful mathematical tools that can be employed to achieve this purpose. Yet the availability of a large dataset with labels plays a crucial role in these fields, and the data collected by SHM methods can only be labeled after the structure fails. In this respect, semi-supervised learning can incorporate unlabeled data monitored from structures that have not yet failed. In the present work, a semi-supervised deep neural network is proposed to construct HI by SHM data fusion. For the first time, the prognostic criteria are used as targets of the network rather than employing them only as a measurement tool of HI's quality. In this regard, the acoustic emission method was used to monitor composite panels during fatigue loading, and extracted features were used to construct an intelligent HI. Finally, the proposed roadmap is evaluated by the holdout method, which shows a 77.3% improvement in the HI's quality, and the leave-one-out cross-validation method, which indicates the generalized model has at least an 81.77% score on the prognostic criteria. This study demonstrates that even when the true HI labels are unknown but the qualified HI pattern (according to the prognostic criteria) can be recognized, a model can still be built that provides HIs aligning with the desired degradation behavior.

In this paper, the effect of interface properties on the compressive failure behavior of 3D woven composites (3DWC) is investigated by incorporating a micromechanics-based multiscale damage model (MMDM). The correlation between the mesoscopic stress of yarns and microscopic stress of constituents is established by defining a stress amplification factor. With the microscopic stresses, the fiber breakage and matrix failure can be separately evaluated at the microscale, without assuming the yarns as transversely isotropic homogeneous materials. Especially, the interfacial debonding between yarns and matrix is also a dominant damage mode within 3DWC. Given that there is still a lack of studies on the influence of interfacial properties on the compressive failure behavior of 3DWC, it is meaningful to perform numerical parametric studies to reveal how the interface properties contribute to the damage mechanisms of 3DWC under compressions. The predicted results indicate that with the increase of interface strengths and fracture toughness, the compressive resistance of 3DWC can be significantly improved, resulting in higher strength and failure strain. Additionally, the studied 3DWCs with weak, medium and strong interfaces exhibit different damage development processes.

Health indicators are indices that act as intermediary links between raw SHM data and prognostic models. An efficient HI should satisfy prognostic requirements such as monotonicity, trendability, and prognosability in such a way that it can be effectively used as an input in a prognostic model for remaining useful life estimation. However, discovering or designing a suitable HI for composite structures is a challenging task due to the inherent complexity of the evolution of damage events in such materials. Previous research has shown that data-driven models are efficient for accomplishing this goal. Large labeled datasets, however, are normally required, and the SHM data can only be labeled, respecting prognostic requirements, after a series of nominally identical structures are tested to failure. In this paper, a semi-supervised learning approach based on implicitly imposing prognostic criteria is adopted to design a novel HI suitable. To this end, single-stiffener composite panels were subjected to compression-compression fatigue loading and monitored using acoustic emission (AE). The AE data after signal processing and feature extraction were fused using a multi-layer LSTM neural network with criteria-based hypothetical targets to generate an intelligent HI. The results confirm the performance of the proposed scenario according to the prognostic criteria.

The present work aims at understanding the stochastic matrix crack evolution in CFRP cross-ply laminates under tension–tension fatigue loading. An experimental campaign was carried out on twenty-three specimens at different stress levels, while two optical techniques were used for the in-situ monitoring of the accumulation of transverse matrix cracks. The results showed a significant scatter in crack evolution among specimens. This stochastic behaviour was further investigated using image analysis and numerical modelling. It was found that transverse matrix cracks can be classified into the independent and dependent cracks based on a critical crack spacing. Furthermore, the severity of interaction among cracks was quantified by introducing a dependent crack ratio. Finally, a strength-based probabilistic model was proposed to describe the scattering regime of the crack evolution. The agreement between model and test results indicates that local strength variations of 90 plies are the dominant scattering source governing the initial fatigue resistance to cracking and determining the accumulation of transverse matrix cracks among specimens. These results may provide a new insight into the stochastic nature of matrix cracking in composite laminates and aid in the design of fatigue resistance properties.

Strain-based structural health monitoring (SHM) relies on high performance strain sensing methods. Gold nanoparticle (NP) doped fibre optic sensors not only have the potential to increase the intensity of the backscattered signal to increase the signal to noise ratio but also have plasmon resonance peaks in the visible light range. The spectral peak shift of the plasmon resonance may be used for strain sensing. In this paper, the spectral peak shift of the plasmon resonance of an optical fibre containing gold NPs under axial strain was analysed. A modified Lorentz-Drude (LD) model with the T-matrix method was used and the spectral peak shifts of spheroidal NPs under strain were calculated. An approximate analytical expression was derived for faster calculation. The modelling presented in this paper shows that the ratio of the change of the peak wavelength to the strain can be related to the refractive index (RI) change of the optical fibre under strain, the shape change of the gold NP, and the RI change of the gold NP. The peak shift was also observed experimentally in an optical adhesive containing gold NPs under compression. The peak shifts were analysed at different RI of the optical fibres, 1.35, 1.45, 1.55 and 1.65 respectively, in order to cover the range of RI of fused silica and some polymer materials. The results confirm experimentally that the applied axial strain can induce the peak wavelength shift by the NPs. By choosing a different optical fibre or the properties of the NPs, the wavelength change ratio has the potential to be tuned, which may be used for highly sensitive strain sensing.

In this paper, a reliable progressive fatigue damage model (PFDM) for predicting the fatigue life of composite laminates is proposed by combining the normalized fatigue life model, nonlinear residual degradation models and fatigue-improved Puck criterion. To balance the accuracy of life predictions and computational efficiency, an adaptive cyclic jump algorithm is developed and implemented within the PFDM. The sensitivity of life prediction to cyclic jump parameter has been greatly reduced by correlating the cyclic jump with the increment time and viscous coefficient. Therefore, the cyclic jump parameter can be arbitrarily selected within a relatively large range to obtain convergent results. When incorporating the adaptive cyclic jump algorithm, there is no need to define a standard for determining the material failure in numerical calculations, which effectively eliminates an artificially induced uncertainty in life predictions. Two sets of experiments are conducted to validate the proposed PFDM. The numerical predictions including static failure strength and fatigue life correlate reasonably well with the available experimental data.

The plasmon resonance spectral peak of a gold spherical nanoparticle (NP) will shift when the NP shape is changed from sphere to spheroid. This may be used as a novel strain detection method with gold NPs embedded in a medium of different refractive index (RI). Applying a strain to the external medium will cause a change in the shape of the NP from spherical to spheroidal. In our previous work, it was found that when the RI change of the medium surrounding the NPs is close to zero, the shape change induced plasmon resonance spectral peak shift will become important. In order to obtain only the wavelength shift values caused by the shape change of the NPs, the RI of medium surrounding the gold NPs is set at a constant of 1.45 and the RI of the gold NP is assumed unchanged. The T-matrix method is used to calculate the scattered light and light extinction by the NP morphing. The diameters of the gold NPs are set from 100 nm to 400 nm, with the size interval at 10 nm, to cover a wide size range for typical sizes of gold spherical NPs. The spectra of the light scattering and light extinction were calculated on the Delft University high performance computing cluster. The results show that the plasmon resonance spectral peak shift is related to the size of the NPs. Larger sizes of gold NPs have larger peak shift values, but there is an inflection point around 200 nm and the bandwidth of the resonance peak becomes larger which will cause a difficulty in precisely locating the peak.

For pick-and-place processes to become widely implemented in industry a consistent and acceptable product quality needs to be achieved. In the state of the art it is assumed that reinforcements will be in perfect condition at the start of forming or draping. In reality the handling process can already result in undesired deformations. The current work will look at fiber angle deviations that occur during this process due to in-plane shear. It is shown that bounds can be set for these fiber angle deviations based on experimental work. Periodic representative volume element homogenization is used to obtain homogenized material properties for a bi-axial non-crimp fabric with a specific construction. With these material properties the in-plane shear strain, and thus the fiber angle deviations, can be predicted. The presented methodology and results obtained using it can be a basis in the design process for automated handling of reinforcements and for in-situ quality control of the pick-and-place process.

With the increased use of composites in aircraft, many new successful contributions to the advancement of the structural health monitoring (SHM) field for composite aerospace structures have been achieved. Yet its application is still not often seen in operational conditions in the aircraft industry, mostly due to a gap between research focus and application, which constraints the shift towards improved aircraft maintenance strategies such as condition-based maintenance (CBM). In this work, we identify and highlight two key facets involved in the maturing of the SHM field for composite aircraft structures: (1) the aircraft maintenance engineer who requires a holistic damage assessment for the aircraft’s structural health management, and (2) the upscaling of the SHM application to realistic composite aircraft structures under in-service conditions. Multi-sensor data fusion concepts can aid in addressing these aspects and we formulate its benefits, opportunities, and challenges. Additionally, for demonstration purposes, we show a conceptual design study for a fusion-based SHM system for multi-level damage monitoring of a representative composite aircraft wing structure. In this manner, we present how multi-sensor data fusion concepts can be of benefit to the community in advancing the field of SHM for composite aircraft structures towards an operational CBM application in the aircraft industry.

A novel micromechanics-based multiscale progressive damage model, employing minimal material parameters, is proposed in this paper to simulate the compressive failure behaviours of 3D woven composites (3DWC). The highly realistic constructions of microscopic and mesoscopic representative volume cells are accomplished, and a set of strain amplification factor is employed to bridge the meso-scale and micro-scale numerical calculations. Considering that the multiple failure mechanisms of 3DWC under compression are all caused by the matrix failure from the microscopic perspective, a new method incorporating the micromechanics of failure (MMF) theory and 3D kinking model is developed to identify the micro matrix failure associated with the kinking of yarns, inter-fiber fracture and pure matrix failure. As a result, only the matrix parameters are required for the failure simulation of 3DWC, eliminating the necessity of using other material parameters such as the fracture toughness and failure strengths of fiber yarns, which are generally difficult to accurately obtain through experiments. The newly proposed damage model is numerically integrated into ABAQUS with a user-defined subroutine UMAT. The numerical predictions and the experimental results exhibit good agreement, verifying the feasibility and accuracy of the novel damage model.

In this paper, with the final aim of shape sensing for a morphing aircraft wing section, a developed multimodal shape sensing system is analysed. We utilise the method of interrogating a morphing wing section based on the principles of both hybrid interferometry and Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) spectral sensing described in our previous work. The focus of this work is to assess the measurement performance and analyse the errors in the shape sensing system. This includes an estimation of the bending and torsional deformations of an aluminium mock-up section due to static loading that imitates the behaviour of a morphing wing trailing edge. The analysis involves using a detailed calibration procedure and a multimodal sensing algorithm to measure the deflection and shape. The method described In this paper, uses a standard single core optical fibre and two grating pairs on both the top and bottom surfaces of the morphing section. A study on the fibre placement and recommendations for efficient monitoring is also included. The analysis yielded a maximum deflection sensing error of 0.7 mm for a 347 × 350 mm wing section.