Abstract: Pilots, in both civil and military aviation, must possess a unique combination of cognitive and psychomotor skills to manage the complexities of flight. Moreover, they need to be able to perform these skills under high pressure when things go wrong, when fatigued, after long periods of low cognitive demand, and in collaboration with others. In this sense, there are parallels between the domain of aviation and sports. Professional athletes receive targeted training to instill self-regulatory techniques which ensure optimal performance under different stressors. Because of the parallels between the two domains, a review of the sports psychology literature was performed to identify evidence-based self-regulatory techniques, and training practices for development of these techniques, that could be relevant for pilots. Identified techniques were goal setting, visualization, self-talk, pre-performance rituals, and mindfulness-based techniques. More general performance-enhancing techniques were the development of a growth mindset and grit. Technologies to support the training and application of these techniques that were identified were the use of virtual reality (VR) and physiological monitoring. In conclusion, several self-regulation techniques used by professional athletes could enhance the performance of military and civil pilots. Factors such as integration into existing operational routines, organizational culture, and psychological safety must be carefully considered to ensure successful adaptation and implementation in the aviation context.

Organizational culture, distinct from national and professional culture, plays a critical role in aviation safety by shaping shared values, beliefs, and practices within organizations. A key subset is safety culture, which focuses specifically on attitudes toward safety. Major disasters such as the Challenger and Chernobyl accidents in 1986 highlighted how organizational factors—like poor communication, hierarchy, and production pressure—can lead to catastrophic outcomes, shifting accident analysis toward systemic issues rather than individual blame. More recently, the crashes of Lion Air Flight 610 and Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 involving the Boeing 737 MAX underscored ongoing concerns about safety culture, where economic pressures and insufficient transparency around the MCAS system contributed to fatal consequences.

For almost fifty years, Crew Resource Management (CRM) has been a cornerstone of aviation safety and training. This narrative review examines the current state of CRM training and identifies key directions for future development, including the integration of artificial intelligence, increasing attention on mental health and resilience, and workforce diversity. While there is evidence of gradual evolution in CRM practices, reflected in updated regulatory frameworks, competency-based approaches, and a growing community of human factors and aviation psychology specialists, progress remains uneven across the industry. We argue that many aviation operators and training organizations still lack robust institutional mechanisms to systematically translate emerging scientific evidence into training design and delivery. As a result, advances in research on teaching and learning methods and human performance are not consistently brought forward into everyday training practices. The review concludes with a set of practical recommendations aimed at strengthening knowledge exchange between researchers and operational stakeholders, enhancing evidence-informed training, and supporting the modernization of CRM in a rapidly changing operational environment.

Startle and surprise are known to impair pilot performance during non-normal flight conditions. In the past years research has focused on developing strategies to help pilots mitigate startle and surprise responses to unexpected situations. However, no equivalent research exists for cabin crew. This study investigates the prevalence, impact on crew performance, and emotional consequences of startle and surprise among cabin crew, as well as the way in which it is currently trained. A survey was conducted among 348 European-based cabin crew to gather data on in-flight events that provoked startle, surprise, or both. Objective measures included stress ratings, perceived impact on performance, perceived emotional control, training exposure, and lasting anxiety. Qualitative data were also collected to assess crew responses and coping mechanisms. Out of 348 respondents, 79.3% reported having experienced startle, surprise or both. High stress levels were significantly correlated with perceived performance impairments and lasting anxiety. Current startle and surprise training improved perceived preparedness but did not reduce perceived stress or anxiety. Emotional control was deemed a key protective factor. Startle and surprise can cause operationally significant impact on cabin crew performance. Training that includes simple, effective emotional regulation strategies, such as those developed for pilots, is currently lacking and may help improve both immediate performance and long-term psychological resilience in the cabin environment, as may increased peer-support access.

Pilots frequently encounter startle and/or surprise (S&S), which can negatively affect their performance. To investigate the types of non-nominal events that prompt S&S, 92 pilots from different fixed-wing operating backgrounds - commercial, military and general aviation - completed a survey. In addition to exploring the relative prevalence of different S&S events, the survey required participants to reflect on the level of stress and mental workload experienced during these events. They also rated the perceived effectiveness of any S&S management methods or techniques they may have implemented. Overall, 95% of the participants reported that they had experienced S&S events. Spatial disorientation and bird strikes caused the highest levels of stress. Aircraft system malfunctions, severe turbulence and automation surprises induced the highest workload. The respondents indicated that applying S&S management techniques helped relieve stress and mental workload. The perceived effectiveness of applying breathing-based techniques was significantly greater than other methods. However, despite regulatory recommendations, only 23% of participants were trained in breathing-based methods. The survey also asked participants to remark on their openness to adopt methods that are specifically tailored to expedite emotional and cognitive recovery from S&S. In this study, the Aviate-Breathe-Communicate (ABC) method was evaluated. Across a range of hypothetical S&S events, participants rated the ABC method as most useful in disorientation scenarios. The lack of time was perceived as the most significant barrier to applying this method in critical events. Additionally, participants rated the variability and unpredictability of their training; however, no significant relationship was found between these ratings and perceived stress levels during S&S events. These findings highlighted the need for improvement in S&S training programs and emphasised the recommendation of breathing-based techniques for managing acute stress in high-stakes situations.

Startle and surprise can impair pilot performance and affect flight safety. This study investigates the prevalence of different startle and surprise events among helicopter pilots, its impact on pilot stress and mental effort and the influence of training background. It also looks at currently used startle mitigation strategies and evaluates the usability of a previously proposed “Aviate, Breathe, Check (ABC)” startle management method (Piras et al. 2023). A survey among 234 helicopter pilots revealed that 96% had experienced impactful startle or surprise events during operations. Scenarios such as disorientation, tail rotor incidents, and flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) were considered particularly stressful. Reported levels of stress and mental effort during startle and surprise events did not differ between pilots with higher and lower experience levels or between pilots with a different training background (military or civilian). Only 38% of pilots indicated they were specifically trained to deal with startle and surprise and only 1% were trained to use a breathing technique. Most pilots (90%) expressed openness to implementing the ABC method and expected benefits from using it. Concerns regarding time constraints in critical situations emerged as the primary objection to adopting this technique. Overall, the findings indicate that the introduction of a startle management method tailored for helicopter operations could significantly enhance safety, especially given the higher accident rates compared to fixed-wing operations. Future research should focus on developing effective training protocols that account for the unique challenges of helicopter flying.

A significant safety challenge airline pilots contend with is the possibility of experiencing startle and surprise. These are cognitive-emotional responses that may temporarily impair performance and that have contributed to multiple fatal loss of control events. Several self-management methods exist that are intended to facilitate recovery from startle and surprise, but these have only been tested in simulator experiments. The current study addresses this research gap by surveying the perceptions of 239 airline pilots on the utility and benefit of a method which they use in operational practice– the “Reset Method”. Overall, the survey results revealed that pilots felt the method improved mental preparedness, and reduced stress. A reported reason for not applying the method was the urge to act quickly. In addition, not all steps of the method were applied equally, and some pilots found the method difficult to fit into the existing procedures of several time-critical scenarios (e.g., aircraft upsets and emergency landings). We recommend training self-management methods in scenarios which carry the most risk of negative effects of startle and surprise. We also recommend instilling awareness of the ‘startle paradox': self-management techniques are most difficult to apply in situations where they are most beneficial. Method shortening and simplification may facilitate application. Future research should focus on refining the method's implementation, addressing the startle paradox, and understanding the transferability of startle and surprise management methods to other safety critical industries defined by complex sociotechnical interactions.

Startle and surprise can impair pilot performance and jeopardize flight safety. Self-management methods have been developed by the industry to address this acute source of stress, however, qualitative insights from pilots describing the quality of these methods are lacking. Ten semi-structured interviews with airline pilots, who had been taught a self-management method, were analyzed using thematic analysis). Pilots considered the method useful and reported positive effects (e.g., decrease in stress) when applying the method during operations. Pilots reported that the method was not often performed in full; specific steps were employed based on perceived benefit. Establishing fellow pilot status and situation awareness was considered most important, addressing own physical startle symptoms (e.g., muscle tension) were deemed less important. Pilots reported an urge to “act” rather than use the method, which is expected as the method aims to induce a pause and mitigate erroneous impulsi ve decisions. Barriers to applying the method included the difficult recognition of startle and surprise, and situational context. Suggested improvements for training dealt with recognition and sharing experiences from peers. The findings of the research provide directions for pilot training for startle and surprise. Future research will explore these pilot perceptions in a larger representative sample.