Motion cues are one of the most challenging aspects of human-in-the-loop vehicle simulators. The real vehicle cues can only be presented in a highly distorted way, so it is important to understand what these cues look like and which aspects are important for the human controlling the vehicle. This paper describes two complementary ways of assessing (translational) motion cues: accelerations plus gravity, and specific forces. These perceived cues can be constructed from different components of Newton’s Second Law and are fundamentally equivalent. The paper shows how the situation heavily favors one representation or the other in understanding the motion cues to be presented. When assessing the cues in flight, the specific force formulation is superior as it leverages flight dynamics knowledge and intuition to predict and explain the form of the cues. The paper gives a number of examples to illustrate this claim, supported both by analysis and by measurements in an instrumented business jet and a motion-based flight simulator.

Providing adequate simulator motion cues for simulated upset and stall scenarios remains challenging. This paper evaluates the potential of novel optimization-based motion cueing algorithms for upset and stall simulation. An offline analysis is performed to compare three Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithms with varying prediction horizon lengths and prediction strategies (i.e., "Oracle", "Perfect", and "Constant") against two baseline classical washout algorithm implementations from literature. The analysis is performed for a symmetric stall scenario flown with TU Delft's Cessna Citation II laboratory aircraft. Overall, the analysis shows that the objective motion cueing quality expressed in terms of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) improves by 29.8% (for specific forces) and 18.7% (for rotational velocities) with the "Oracle" and "Perfect" MPC implementations compared to the reference classical washout results. For the "Constant" MPC algorithm, which in fact does not include any explicit prediction across the MPC algorithm's future prediction window, only a marginal improvement in motion quality was found. Overall, these results imply that, assuming a sufficient future reference motion prediction can be achieved, optimization-based motion cueing algorithms have the potential to provide significantly better motion cueing quality compared to classical motion cueing algorithms.

This manual provides guidance for human factors researchers and applied psychologists, on the standardized and scientifically rigorous use of the instruments. It is structured to include an overview of the instruments, administration guidelines, and a summary of their psychometric properties to support accurate application and interpretation in research and operational contexts.

The Flying-V is a novel flying wing aircraft design that aims to improve aerodynamic efficiency and fuel consumption. In recent years, there has been an increased effort to evaluate the handling qualities (HQs) of the Flying-V, and to develop new flight control strategies. One of the latest flight control designs for the Flying-V uses Incremental Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion (INDI) with a Flight Envelope Protection system. The purpose of this research is to validate this FCS design and its conclusions on handling qualities by conducting piloted experiments. To facilitate a sound comparison, the aerodynamic model, flight control structure, and airframe characteristics are taken as is from the existing study. For the experiment, numerous maneuvers are designed and carried out. The experiment is performed on the SIMONA Research Simulator of the Delft University of Technology, with three real-life test pilots as participants. The results show a significant correlation with offline findings and demonstrate the improvement in HQs provided by the flight control system.

We investigated the effect of personality traits and flight experience on pilot cognitive and affective responses across seven startling and surprising scenarios performed in motion-based simulators. A dataset of 89 airline pilots from four studies was used. The personality traits measured were trait anxiety, decision-related action orientation (AOD), and failure-related action orientation (AOF). Pilot self-reported responses in scenarios were standardized by obtaining z scores of startle, surprise, stress, and mental workload. Only trait anxiety was found to be significantly positively correlated with stress. No significant effects of AOD, AOF, or flight hours were found on pilots’ responses. The results indicate trait anxiety may affect pilots’ responses to stressful scenarios, even though pilots are selected based on low trait anxiety.

This paper presents the development process of an aircraft control law. The control law is designed using a two-degree-of-freedom (2DoF) structured H∞ loop-shaping approach. This method allows the reuse of controller structures required by certification procedures while directly including handling qualities and robust stability requirements in the optimization process. This strategy is employed to develop a Rate Command and Attitude Hold (RCAH) demand system aimed at satisfying longitudinal handling qualities. First, the stability of the open-loop model and its compliance with the handling qualities guidelines are evaluated. Then, the control law is designed, with a detailed description provided of the design specifications and their formulation in the context of H∞ control. Subsequently, the controller parameters are optimized to satisfy the design specifications and a closed-loop analysis is performed. Finally, a simulator flight testing campaign is conducted to experimentally validate the designed control law. It is shown that the aircraft equipped with the RCAH system achieves better handling quality ratings (HQRs) and more favorable pilot feedback, providing a substantial improvement over the bare airframe.

Previous research indicated a need to improve pilot training with regard to understanding of autopilot logic and behavior, especially in non-routine situations. Therefore, we tested the effect of problem-based exploratory training on pilots’ understanding of autopilot functions. Using a moving-base flight simulator, general aviation pilots (n = 45) were trained to diagnose failures either without foreknowledge and guidance (exploratory group), without foreknowledge but with some guidance (exploratory-guidance group) or with foreknowledge and full guidance (control group). They subsequently performed six test scenarios in which their understanding of the effects of failures was tested by requiring them to deduce the failures and select autopilot modes that were still functioning. Those who received exploratory training with guidance were significantly more likely than the other groups to diagnose failures correctly. The exploratory training group also selected the most appropriate functioning autopilot modes significantly faster than the control group. The results suggest that exploratory training with an appropriate level of guidance is useful for gaining a practical understanding of autopilot logic and behavior. Exploratory training may help to improve transfer of training to operational practice, and prevent automation surprises and accidents.

This paper analyzes the effects of the helicopter dynamics on pilots' learning process and transfer of learned skills during autorotation training. A quasi-transfer-of-training experiment was performed with 10 experienced helicopter pilots in the SIMONA moving-base flight simulator at Delft University of Technology. Pilots had to control an in-house flight dynamics model setup to simulate two types of helicopter dynamics: (1) a "hard"dynamics characterized by a low autorotative flare index requiring high pilot control compensation and (2) a "easy"dynamics characterized by a high autorotative flare index with low pilot control compensation required. Two groups of pilots tested these types of dynamics in a different training sequence: hard-easy-hard (HEH group) and easy-hard-easy (EHE group). The main conclusion of this study proved that simulator training for autorotation can best start with pilots training in the most resource demanding condition. A more challenging helicopter's dynamics will require higher pilot agility and more rapid responses to his/her perceptual changes. This will result in pilots developing more robust and adaptable flying skills. Indeed, a clear positive transfer of training effect was observed in the experiment presented in this paper in terms of acquired pilot skills in the HEH group, but not the EHE group. Positive transfer was especially observed in terms of reduced rate of descent at touchdown. The two groups differed in the control strategy applied, with the HEH group having developed a control technique mimicking more closely the one adopted in a real helicopter.

Background. Previous studies and accident analyses have shown that pilots can make roll reversal errors when responding to bank angles shown by the artificial horizon in the Primary Flight Display (PFD). In the current study, we tested whether adding stereoscopic depth cues to the artificial horizon may lead to better bank angle representation due to an improved figureground separation between the symbols. Method. Stereoscopic depth cues were created by using a half-silvered mirror multi-layer PFD, which presented the horizon symbol on a lower layer and the aircraft symbol on a higher layer. A group of 23 non-pilots and 18 general aviation pilots were shown left or right bank angles on this multi-layer PFD as well as on a normal single-layer PFD, with the task to roll the wings level using a joystick. Results. In the pilot group, a similar amount of roll-reversal errors was made with both displays (median = 3.3%) with no significant difference, p = 0.635. In the non-pilot group, fewer roll-reversal errors were observed with the multi-layer display, but this difference did not reach significance either (median = 3.3% vs. 5.0%, p = 0.182). In both pilots and non-pilots, the reaction time was longer in the multi-layer display, which reached significance in the non-pilots (p = 0.016) but not in pilots (p = 0.215). Participants noticed that the depth was only visible during the start of the session. Conclusions. The results suggest that using stereoscopic depth cues are not a viable manner to enhance the figure-ground relation in the artificial horizon.

Flying wings are known for their limited lateral-directional stability and handling qualities. This study aims at assessing the lateral-directional handling qualities of a conceptual flying wing aircraft currently in development at TU Delft, the Flying-V, in a moving-base flight simulator. It focuses on two aspects: First assess the lateral-directional handling qualities of the bare-airframe Flying-V, and the compliance to quantitative requirements. Second, improve these handling qualities through a prototype flight control system, and assess its effect on the handling qualities and the requirement compliance. These assessments were performed both analytically and with a pilot-in-the-loop simulator experiment, in order to experimentally validate analytical findings and obtain new pilot-subjective insights. The analytical and experimental assessment for lowspeed flight conditions both show the lateral-directional handling qualities of the Flying-V to be insufficient for requirement compliance, due to a lack of pitch, roll and yaw control authority and an insufficiently stable Dutch roll eigenmode. The prototype flight control system, consisting of an adapted control allocation and a stability augmentation system, showed both analytically and experimentally to improve the control authority, stability, and handling qualities of the Flying-V. While the effect on the lateral-directional stability was sufficient for stability requirement compliance, the control authority was not sufficiently increased for maneuverability requirement compliance at low speed. Thus, if the landing speed is not increased from the current baseline, a challenge remains to improve the handling qualities of the Flying-V. An approximation of the control authority required for full requirement compliance in the low-speed flight conditions tested showed a control authority increase of over a factor four to be required in that case.

The Flying-V novel aircraft design aims at reducing fuel consumption by an innovative low-drag, fuselage-free geometry. Possible issues related to certification requirements have been noted, however, regarding longitudinal handling qualities at low speed, the pull-up manoeuver, and the flight-path-angle response. This study aims at investigating these issues through a pilot-in-theloop experiment. Starting with a mathematical model of the Flying-V, based on the vortex lattice method, a preliminary off-line analysis of the handling qualities is conducted. A sensitivity analysis is considered over the proposed operational center-of-gravity range, approach speed (between 0.225 and 0.3 Mach, 149 and 198 knots indicated airspeed, respectively), maximum deflection of the control surfaces (between 20 and 30 degrees), and flight control system (Direct Law or Pitch-Rate Command). The pilot-in-the-loop experiment, its design guided by results from the analytical assessment, shows that the handling qualities provided by the current design of the Flying-V with Direct Law at 0.3 Mach are satisfactory with minor improvements related to aircraft responsiveness. For lower speeds (0.225 Mach), the handling qualities degrade due to a sluggish response, high compensation workload, insufficient control authority, insufficient sight angle, and tendency to pilot induced oscillations. Shifting the center of gravity away from the nose provides larger control authority at the expense of a minor reduction of responsiveness. Control augmentation proves to be very effective at improving the handling qualities. It is expected that the go-around certification standards will be satisfied, but approach speed will remain critical for controllability and safety.

Preventing Loss of Control In-flight (LOC-I) in commercial and general aviation is an active research area with numerous proposed solutions. One of these solutions aims to prevent lateral LOC-I, a special type of LOC-I, by presenting a roll-performance based minimum lateral control speed to the pilot in roll-limited situations, such as single-engine failure scenarios in multi-engine aircraft. This minimum lateral control speed is predicted by a system, named the Vc Prediction System (VPS), which continually predicts the minimum lateral control speed Vc at which an aircraft can still obtain a certain roll angle within a certain amount of time. It consists of three components; a linear model, a parameter estimation method and a Vc prediction model. These VPS components were designed for a simulation model of the Piper Seneca. This study analyzes the sensitivity of the VPS design to a change in aircraft dynamics and simulation model complexity by redesigning this system for a high-fidelity simulation model of the Fokker 50. The results show that both aircraft favor a small linear model and the Modified Kalman Method for parameter estimation. The original Vc prediction model however gives higher Vc prediction errors for the Fokker 50 than for the Piper Seneca. By simplifying the original Vc prediction model a stable, smooth and relatively accurate Vc prediction for the Fokker 50 can be obtained.

A novel aircraft configuration, the tailless Flying-V, is examined for its longitudinal handling qualities in cruise by means of piloted simulations. The Flying-V is controlled by two aileron/elevator (elevon) surfaces on each side, and rudders on each wingtip. Two control allocation schemes were created: a conventional one where both inboard and outboard elevons deflect in the same direction, and one where the change in lift the elevons generate is countered by deploying the inboard and outboard elevons in opposite directions, allowing more direct control of the resulting flight path. The longitudinal handling qualities in cruise conditions were investigated by pilot opinion in a moving base simulator. Three experiments were conducted: a traditional pitch tracking experiment with the conventional control allocation, and a new flight-path-angle tracking experiment, using both the conventional and the flight-path-oriented control allocation. The pilots indicated the conventional pitch attitude control to have Level 1 handling qualities for the pitch control task, and Level 2 for the flight path control task. The flight-path-oriented control allocation improved the performance of the pilots during the flight-part tracking experiment, but the perceived control authority was considered too small for most pilots to consistently rate it at Level 1.

Nonlinear dynamic inversion (NDI) is a nonlinear feedback linearization technique that has been widely applied to flight control systems [1,2]. Using state feedback and the inverted nonlinear system dynamics, NDI can significantly reduce controller development costs by avoiding gain scheduling and Jacobian linearization at a multitude of operating points. However, the control performance of NDI is directly dependent on required detailed knowledge of the model. As a simplified and enhanced NDI method [3], incremental nonlinear dynamic inversion (INDI) [4,5] has been proposed to reduce the model dependency and improve the robustness against model uncertainties. Instead of using a global nonlinear model, in INDI the dynamic inversion is implemented on a locally linearized system model that is updated at every sampling period, for which the control input is calculated in an incremental manner. Unlike NDI, for which full knowledge of the complete system dynamics is needed, INDI only requires explicit knowledge of the system’s control effectiveness matrix.

Current aircraft flight deck interfaces do not provide information on how a performance-altering failure constrains an aircraft’s flight envelope. As a result, it is difficult for flight crews to plan maneuvers in order to reach navigation targets. This study presents the results of the conceptual development of constraint-based interface symbology that aims to address this issue. The proposed symbology is designed to integrate with both the primary flight display and navigation display. A small-scale, pilot-in-the-loop experiment (N=9) was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the used symbology in terms of flight performance and pilot usability. A simplified dynamic model with an asymmetric flight envelope was used to purposefully manipulate various levels of damage severity and corresponding flight envelopes. Results show that although the modifications to the primary flight display generally did not show statistically significant improvements, presenting flight envelope constraints as a reachable navigation envelope on the navigation display generally did do so for severe failures. The visualized envelope occasionally resulted in improved tactical control decisions at reduced workload levels. A future study involving a lager sample size and increased simulation realism should substantiate the discovered results.

The Perceptual Eigenmode Distortion (PEMD), an extension to the Eigenmode Distortion (EMD), is a method for objectively evaluating simulator motion fidelity, developed over the last few years. EMD assesses how the Motion Cueing Algorithm (MCA) distorts the vehicle's perceived eigenmodes. In this paper, EMD is extended by a human perception model, which helps to balance the various motion cue contributions in a more human-centered context. Additionally, a new automatic MCA tuning approach is introduced to create an MCA parameter set that is optimal in terms of eigenmode distortion. The method is applied to a combined linear model of the Cessna Citation 500 for asymmetrical flight and the Classical Washout Algorithm (CWA). A pilot-in-the-loop experiment was performed, with six pilots in the SIMONA Research Simulator, to compare the PEMD method's parameter set with sets designed with the current state-of-the-art method of the Objective Motion Cueing Test (OMCT), and with a baseline motion configuration, as well as a condition without any simulator motion. Throughout each run of the double-blind pairwise comparisons, the Dutch roll eigenmode was externally excited with a gust of semi-random amplitude and direction. Two hypotheses were tested using subjective preferences and through measuring the Dutch roll suppression performance. Subjective preferences varied between and within pilots, and similar results for PEMD and OMCT were found. A significant improvement in performance was found, however, between the no-motion condition and the PEMD. Although the perceived differences between a PEMD-tuned and alternative MCA settings seem very subtle, the improved mode suppression performance suggests the method having merit in flight scenarios where the aircraft's dynamic modes play an important role.

This paper investigates the effect of employing different display design principles for human–machine interaction in helicopters. Two obstacle avoidance support displays are evaluated during low-altitude forward flight. A baseline head-up display is complemented either by a conventional advisory display or a constraint-based display inspired by ecological interface design. The latter design philosophy has only been sparsely applied in the helicopter domain. Twelve helicopter pilots participated in an experiment in a research flight simulator. We found no significant effects of the displays on objective performance measures. However, there was a trend of decreasing pilot workload and increasing situation awareness when employing the support displays, as compared to the baseline display. The constraint-based display had the largest positive effect and increased the resilience of the pilot–vehicle system toward unexpected events when considering the safety of the flown trajectories. Pilots preferred the advisory display in nominal situations and the constraint-based display in off-nominal situations, reproducing similar findings from research in the fixed-wing domain. This experiment showed the potential of the developed constraint-based display to improve subjective pilot ratings, pilot preference, and safety during unexpected events. Future research will investigate more complex scenarios with longer time frames, possibly eliciting more divergent effects of different display design principles.

This paper analyzes the effects of the helicopter dynamics on pilots’ learning process and transfer of learned skills during autorotation training. A quasi-transfer-of-training experiment was performed with 14 experienced helicopter pilots in a moving-base flight simulator. Two types of helicopter dynamics, characterized by a different autorotative index, were considered: “hard,” with high pilot compensation required, and “easy,” with low compensation required. Two groups of pilots tested the two types of dynamics in a different training sequence: hard-easy-hard (HEH group) and easy-hard-easy (EHE group). Participants of both groups were able to attain adequate performance at touchdown in most of the landings with both types of dynamics. However, a clear positive transfer effect in terms of acquired skills is found in both groups from the hard to the easy dynamics, but not from the easy to the hard dynamics, confirming previous experimental evidence. Positive transfer is especially observed for the rate of descent at touchdown. The two groups differed in the control strategy applied, with the HEH group having developed a more robust control technique. During the last training phase the EHE group aligned its control strategy with that of the HEH group.

This paper investigates the interaction effects of motion filter order and break frequency on pilots’ manual control behavior and control performance using two simulators. Eighteen pilots performed the experiment in the Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS) at NASA Ames Research Center and 20 pilots in the SIMONA Research Simulator at Delft University of Technology. The experiment used a full-factorial design with three motion filter orders (first-, second-, and third-order) and two filter break frequencies (0.5 and 2.0  rad/s), in addition to reference no-motion and full-motion conditions. Key task variables, such as the quality of the motion and visual cues and the characteristics of the sidestick, were matched across both simulators. Overall, the expected effects of filter order and break frequency variations were found, with both increasing order and increasing break frequency causing pilots to use less motion feedback in their control strategy, resulting in lower tracking performance. Furthermore, across the wide range of filter orders tested in the experiment, the existing Sinacori–Schroeder motion fidelity criterion was found to be a good predictor of the interaction effects of both filter settings on pilot control behavior. For the same motion condition, there was a consistent offset in the results between simulators, due to the more high-gain control strategy adopted by a number of the VMS pilots. Still, the observed relative trends in pilot control behavior and performance between motion conditions were equivalent in both simulators and thus accurately replicated.

Rotorcraft flight dynamics simulation models require high levels of fidelity to be suitable as prime items in support of life cycle practices, particularly vehicle and control design and development, and system and trainer certification. On the civil side, both the FAA (US) and EASA (Europe) have documented criteria (metrics and practices) for assessing model and simulator fidelity as compared to flight-test data, although these have not been updated for several decades. On the military side, the related practices in NATO nations are not harmonised and often only developed for specific applications. Methods to update the models for improved fidelity are mostly ad hoc and lack a rational and methodical approach. Modern rotorcraft System Identification (SID) and inverse simulation methods have been developed in recent years that provide new approaches well suited to pilot-in-the-loop fidelity assessment and systematic techniques for updating simulation models to achieve the needed level of fidelity. To coordinate efforts and improve the knowledge in this area, STO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel Research Task Group (STO AVT-296 RTG) was constituted to evaluate update methods used by member nations to find best practices and suitability for different applications including advanced rotorcraft configurations. This report presents the findings of the AVT-296 RTG. An overview of previous rotorcraft simulation fidelity Working Groups is presented, followed by a review of the metrics that have been used in previous studies to quantify the fidelity of a flight model or the overall perceptual fidelity of a simulator. The theoretical foundations of the seven different update methods and a description of the eight flight databases (Bell 412, UH-60, IRIS+, EC135, CH-47, AW139, AW109, and X2, provided by the National Research Council of Canada, US Army, Airbus Helicopters, Boeing, Leonardo Helicopter Division, and Sikorsky) used by the RTG is presented. Both time- and frequency-domain fidelity assessment methods are considered, including those in current use by simulator qualification authorities and those used in the research community. Case studies are used to show the application, utility, and limitations of the update and assessment methods to the flight-test data. The work of the RTG has shown that time- and frequency-domain SID based metrics are suitable for use for assessing the model fidelity across a wide range of rotorcraft configurations. Gain and time delay update methods work well for well-developed flight dynamics models and can be used for flight control system design, but do not provide physical insights into the sources of errors in a model. Deriving stability and control derivatives from flight-test data using SID and nonlinear simulation models using perturbation extraction methods provides insight into the missing dynamics of the simulation model, which can subsequently be updated using additional forces and moments to significantly improve the fidelity of the model and can be used to update models for flight simulation training application methods. Reduced order model and physics-based correction methods provide large benefits when extrapolating to other flight conditions but does require detailed flight-test data. SID can quickly provide accurate point models, if detailed flight-test data are available, which can be ‘stitched’ together to produce models suitable for real-time piloted simulation and control design applications. However, the dependency on flight-test data means that this method is not suitable for early aircraft development activities.