Background

Cargo handling is a 24/7 industry, with ground services, air transport, oceanic shipping, and more all happening around the clock. While it is common for cargo facilities and ports to run 24/7 or close at night, it is less common for part of a cargo facility to temporarily close at night while operations in other areas remain operational. This setup has not been significantly researched and therefore remains unoptimised. Such a facility setup exists at KLM Cargo
facilities at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, where one of its three cargo terminals temporarily closes while the other two remain open throughout the night, causing operational inefficiencies.

System analysis

Terminal 1 (T1) at KLM Cargo’s primary facilities handles the airline’s express shipments (XPS), but is subject to nightly closures, requiring express products delivered at night to temporarily be stored at Terminal 3 (T3), which primarily handles general cargo exports, until T1 reopens in the morning. This leads to several inefficiencies and problems, including XPS packages frequently being delayed and missing early morning flights due to not being transferred and sorted in time after T1 reopens, as well as XPS packages impacting the general cargo operations at T3.

In this project, presented by the Business Process and Improvement (BPI) department at KLM Cargo, the XPS package processes were mapped, analysed, and redesigned in order to optimise the cargo delivery process during the night and eliminate operational inefficiencies and hindrances within the current setup. This was achieved through a variety of methods, including literature research, data analysis, in-person observations, interviews, and discrete-event simulation modelling.

Future requirements analysis

Many stakeholders are interested in seeing the current process revitalised and replaced with a new process that ensures XPS packages are sorted sooner, do not get lost, are prioritised better, and reduce the impact on T3 operations. It is also important that the project satisfies all safety and security requirements, fits within the physical spaces of the terminal floor plan, and falls within the monetary limits of the company.

Design solution

The newly proposed design involves installing automated drop-off machines in the walls of T1 that connect to scanning technology and subsequently feed directly into the sorting machine within T1. This allows XPS packages that are cleared and ready to be shipped to directly enter the sorting machine of T1 instead of waiting at T3 until the morning. Additionally, holding bins allow some XPS packages to be set aside should the system detect potential safety and security risks that require additional human checks. The primary goal of the new solution is to reduce the average amount of time XPS packages take from the moment they arrive on the premises to the moment they are inserted into the sorting machine, while also removing as many XPS packages from T3 at night as possible.

Results

Discrete-event simulation (DES) models were used to replicate both the current and proposed systems. The model for the new process tested various percentage combinations of XPS packages that were either accepted directly or stored in a temporary holding bin awaiting additional checks in the morning. Data provided by KLM Cargo included values for the interarrival times of trucks carrying XPS shipments at night, as well as the number of packages arriving, allowing for accurate data-based representations of the processes. The simulations produced several outputs for both the current and proposed processes, including average XPS flow times, average times at which the first XPS package entered the sorter, and the average number of packages entering the sorter before T1 reopened. These results were compared between the two systems to support conclusions and recommendations.

Discussion and recommendations

The results obtained from the DES simulations indicate that an automated drop-off system can significantly improve the operations and execution of the night-time cargo delivery process for express shipments at T1. The results show that having at least 15% of night-time XPS arrivals directly accepted into the sorter during the night is sufficient to surpass the current system in performance. Additionally, the results support the notion that the more XPS packages are directly inserted into the sorter, the less impact and fewer problems arise in T3 operations during the night. It is therefore strongly recommended that KLM Cargo continues development and research aimed at turning this drop-off proposal into reality. ... Read more

The rapid growth of e-commerce has led to escalating product return volumes, generating substantial economic costs and environmental impact. Existing research largely focuses on either advanced predictive modelling or process optimisation, yet it commonly overlooks the role of stakeholders in designing actionable return reduction strategies. This study introduces a practical and interpretable framework that clusters products and orders features, finding the return risk to support targeted interventions. Using a Design Science Research (DSR) approach, the framework integrates expert interviews, a structured literature review, and extensive data analysis. Statistical tests reveal significant return rate variation across product attributes (category, color, size, price) and order characteristics (order value, quantity, shipping carrier). Three clustering techniques, K-Prototypes, CAVE, and LCC, were evaluated, with LCC providing the most distinctive segmentation of high-risk groups. High-risk products were predominantly found in the Fashion Category, particularly in black and red variants and in sizes other than “One Size”. Furthermore, high-risk orders were associated with large, high-value purchases shipped via DHLDE. The resulting framework enables retailers to implement validated strategies such as improved product information, category-specific return policies, and targeted marketing adjustments. Overall, the approach offers a scalable, stakeholder-aligned foundation for reducing return flows. ... Read more

Returnable Transport Items (RTIs) play a critical role in sustainable logistics by enabling asset reuse across supply chains. However, damaged RTIs must be efficiently transported to repair centers and reintegrated into the network to maintain service quality and cost-efficiency. This thesis addresses the challenge of optimizing such repair-integrated transport flows within RTI pooling systems, using Container Centralen as a real-world case study. An Integer Linear Programming (ILP) model is developed to jointly determine the optimal allocation of broken RTIs to repair centers and the subsequent redistribution of repaired items to depots, under constraints such as repair capacity, transport time, and demand fulfillment. The model is implemented in Python using Gurobi and embedded in a user-friendly dashboard for decision support. Through simulation experiments based on historical data and realistic scenarios, the integrated approach demonstrates significant improvements over heuristic strategies, including reduced transport distances, better repair center utilization, and improved service reliability. The findings highlight the practical and theoretical value of integrated logistics modeling for RTI networks and propose several avenues for future research, including the extension to multiple RTI types, incorporation of uncertainty, and scalability enhancements. This work contributes to both operations research literature and practical decision-making in circular supply chain management. ... Read more

Landside air cargo terminals face increasing pressure from growing truck volumes, unpredictable arrival patterns, and limited dock capacity. At KLM Cargo, this results in longer truck waiting- and lead times and congested operations, especially during peak hours. This study aims to evaluate different operational and infrastructural strategies by developing a simulation model of the landside air cargo operations. The model represents the Dock & Yard area, excluding the interior terminal and airside. Data is obtained through internal datasets from KLM Cargo, and model validation is conducted by comparing historical data KPIs to model output KPIs. Several configurations are analyzed, including changes in dock capacity, dock expansion, and a slot booking system. The results show that slot booking and adding new docks provide measurable impact on lead- and waiting times, thereby reducing congestion. These findings provide insights into the effect of dock configuration and improved coordination can improve Dock & Yard performance. ... Read more

Transport costs represent a dominant and volatile share of logistics expenditure, often exceeding one-third of total logistics costs, making their control and transparency a matter of strategic importance.
Despite this significance, the verification of transport invoices in outsourced logistics remains highly manual, fragmented, and reliant on individual expertise, leading to processing delays, inconsistent application of contractual terms, and financial risks from overpayment or disputes. This study addresses these challenges by redesigning the transport cost verification process through automation. Adopting a design science methodology within a real-world case from the aviation maintenance sector, the research combines a current-state analysis, a stakeholder-weighted evaluation of alternative automation technologies, and the development of redesigned workflow models. The strategies assessed include Rule-based Automation, Hybrid Structured Automation based on structured data exchange, and AI-powered Intelligent Document Processing (IDP). The results show that IDP offers the highest overall performance, particularly in handling heterogeneous invoice formats, while hybrid automation balances efficiency with partner collaboration, and rule-based systems provide a low-barrier entry point for organizations at earlier stages of digital maturity. These strategies were subsequently integrated into an improved workflow design that embeds standardized validation, strengthens financial control, and reduces reliance on tacit expertise. Conceptually, the study extends cost management research by bridging
strategic frameworks with the transactional realities of invoice verification, demonstrating how automation and process redesign can jointly enhance financial decision-making in outsourced logistics. ... Read more

Hydrogen is emerging as plausible energy carrier to decrease the global dependency on fossil fuels. Hydrogen production based on renewable energy and electrolysis is a technically mature and well-researched production process. Production processes based on large electrolyzers result in varying and relatively high (between €4/kg and up to ± €14/kg) levelized costs of hydrogen - attributable to high electrolyzer and electricity costs. This research evaluates the potential of an off-energy-grid PV and small- capacity electrolyzer based hydrogen production process. The assessed smaller-capacity electrolyzers result in less than a quarter of most electrolyzer costs (€/kW). The cost reduction combined with the avoided electricity costs due to grid connection, allow for market competitive LCOHs within the range of ± €2,15-5/kg hydrogen depending on the hydrogen outflow system chosen for the farm. This research shows that the low electrolyzer and electricity costs of an off-energy-grid PV and small-capacity electrolyzer based hydrogen farm - with running hours limited to the average sun equivalent hours while including a water supply system (source, treatment, distribution across farms, etc.) and a hydrogen outflow system (collection across farm, possible compression) - has technical feasibility and market potential. ... Read more

This paper investigates how two sequential sub-processes at a flower auction can be well aligned to efficiently execute the overall auction process. Existing literature mainly focuses on warehouses without perishable goods and warehouses where all orders are known before the outbound process is started. However, at a flower auction, the gathering of goods and distribution takes place while the auction is still ongoing. In addition, flowers are vulnerable goods that must be handled with care.
During a case study at Royal FloraHolland Naaldwijk, the current process of order picking and in-house delivery is investigated to find the main strengths and bottlenecks. This is done physically and with data. From this analysis,
it has been found that the main issues are the spread and share of waiting times in the in-house delivery process and the output of the order-picking process that is too low. To improve the overall process based on the found issues, a calculation model has been built in Python to test possible improvements. It has been found that implementing limited waiting times and other alterations to increase efficiency results in a more reliable and better predictable
process that can be executed with approximately the same number of work hours or slightly more than in the current situation. ... Read more

Purpose - With the short term need to reduce direct CO2 emissions of trucks in distribution processes, this paper aims to provide an easy to implement solution approach for distribution processes of new cars from holistic perspective. Scarce emphasizes is provided on short-term alternatives in truck-based distribution processes and approaches lacks applicable for large scale problems including split delivery function.
Design/methodology/approach - The distribution process and model methods are analyzed using a literature study and interviews with experts, resulting in the development of a solution approach. Combined with an extensive field research, a solution approach enables the performance evaluation of the current state, and the policy implications. Future designs are used to validate the solution approach by calculating performance differences in multiple relevant evaluation domains.
Findings - The analysis of the current state has identified critical bottlenecks, leading to the development of two promising policies. The application of a new and validated prioritization strategy and permitting more stops per truck has successfully yielded a significant reduction in CO2 emissions. The performance of the solution approach demonstrates high precision on a small scale and yields results comparable to actual practices on a larger scale, suggesting the approach's effectiveness and potential for future application.
Research limitations/implications - This research provides a new solution approach for evaluating direct CO2 emissions of model different designs of distribution processes. Despite its narrow scope, the transportation sector has a significant environmental footprint, and offers the potential for substantial reductions in emissions. From modeling perspective, further research is suggested in integrating split delivery function without using dummy variables.
Originality/value - This paper contributes by identifying critical gaps in the understanding and implementation of system-wide efficient car distribution processes from distribution hubs to car dealers. It not only addresses potential improvements, but also proved efficiency gains of the system with a new solution approach, using a new combination of a state-of-the-art meta-heuristic and a proven split delivery method applicable for large-scale problems. ... Read more

Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (AAS) faces operational challenges from fluctuating baggage volumes and limited infrastructure, necessitating innovative approaches to optimize baggage handling. This study focuses on strategic buffering of super cold transfer baggage to reduce peak occupancy at transfer infeed points. A simulation model, integrated with TBATS forecasting, evaluates three buffering strategies (fixed target, polynomial, hybrid) and two reintroduction strategies (early, optimized release) under normal, disrupted, and highdemand scenarios. The results demonstrate peak occupancy reductions of up to 26.8%, with the polynomial buffering strategy and optimized release proving the most effective, though requiring additional AGV resources. Fixed target strategies offer a more resource-efficient alternative while maintaining substantial improvements in peak shaving. Early release strategies further reduce buffer congestion, optimizing operations for space-constrained environments. This research provides actionable insights for AAS and similar airports, highlighting trade-offs between efficiency, resource requirements, and operational constraints. The findings contribute to scalable solutions for managing growing baggage volumes within existing infrastructure, enhancing system resilience and performance. ... Read more

The Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) is the most commonly used piece of horizontal movement that uses electric power from an internal battery pack. With much focus on the charging strategy, current charge operation models lack the ability to model large scale terminal operations and to incorporate new types of horizontal movement. The objective of this research is to show the impact of recharge operations on terminal performances. A discrete event simulation model is based on the characteristics of APMT MVII to model the current impact. The results of numerical experiments show charging operations have a limited impact on the productivity of Lift-AGV. An exception is the change in battery type. Using a Li-ion battery lowers the need for recharging and increases total productivity. The findings show the importance of integrating modelling to accurately project terminal operations. ... Read more

This research examines the multifaceted challenges posed by urbanization in the Netherlands, specifically focusing on the intricate relationships between modes of mobility and societal well-being. Central to this exploration is studying the modal split and understanding how shifts in this split can have profound implications for urban areas. The Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management’s (Min IenW) Well-being Monitor is the foundation for this study, aiming to chart the interplay of living environment, safety, health, and accessibility. It illuminates the potential consequences of changing transportation choices (modal split) on broader environmental concerns such as the Urban Heat Island effect, noise disturbance, air quality, and climate resilience. While cars due to their ubiquity, cars play a central role in the research. However, the importance of Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) and Public Transport (PT) is also highlighted, given their significant roles in urban mobility and their potential to redefine the modal split. Using Rotterdam as a case study, the research delves into the spatial constraints of one of the Netherlands’ largest cities, emphasizing the need for effective urban planning that prioritizes sustainable transportation solutions and envisions future shifts in transportation preferences. The goal is to offer valuable insights that can influence urban strategies, ensuring sustainable and livable cities. ... Read more

The continuing growing economy and increase in global trade has led the rapid growth of the e-commerce. The covid-19 pandemic has further contributed to this growth since in store-shopping was restricted. The growth of the e-commerce has forced logistic companies to continuously improve their supply chain in order to stay competitive and has also led to the increase of truck transportation as they serve as the primary mode of transporting products from suppliers to Fulfillment Centers (FCs) within the inbound system. This highlights the importance of truck logistics, which encompass all the different movements trucks make within a FC. Truck logistics have a significant impact on the flow of the inbound system as they proceed through the processes of the inbound system in chronological order. Therefore, poor organized truck logistics can have many consequences to the operational logistics of the inbound system and therefore impact the system performance of the inbound system. High congestion of trucks, high waiting times, delays in unloading trucks as a result lead to a poor overall system performance of the inbound system. A lot of literature studies have been done on improving the inbound system, but not focused at fulfillment centers. Also, none of these studies can be found on concerning the consequence of eliminating the rejection of non-unloaded trucks. This research addresses the research gap of improving the inbound system of FCs with the objective of eliminating the rejection of non-unloaded trucks and reducing the pressure on the waiting areas within the inbound system. By conducting a case study at bol.com and using their current state, a Discrete Event Simulation model for fulfillment centers is developed to measure, analyze and evaluate the impact of the increasing truck logistics on the system performance of the inbound system and to design strategies to eliminate the rejection of non-unloaded trucks. Seven strategies have proven to improve the system performance of the inbound system at fulfillment centers. An evaluation was performed with a Multi-Criteria Analysis in order to select the most appropriate strategy for the company. ... Read more

Purpose - With the ongoing rise of product returns in the fashion industry, exacerbating its GHG footprint when it should be lowered, this paper aims to provide a measurement tool for companies to improve the environmental impact of product returns while considering the economic costs. Companies do not have an understanding of the impact of these returns on their performances, resulting from a gap in research where an accurate measurement method lacks that includes all activities and return methods.
Design/methodology/approach - The returns process and the return methods were analyzed using a literature study and interviews with experts, resulting in a set of environmental and economic indicators. These indicators were aggregated in a Composite Indicator (CI) by rescaling, analytical hierarchy process, and multiplicative aggregation techniques. A benchmark for target performance was developed based on reduction targets of the European Commission, using rescaling, equal weighting, and multiplication and integrated into the CI. An uncertainty- and sensitivity analysis confirmed the model’s robustness. A case study of a fashion retailer verified the model. A scenario analysis based on the PESTLE framework was used to validate the CI and benchmark. A company’s performance measured was compared against the verified benchmark by calculating the performance gap.
Findings - The environmental and economic impact of the return methods for the base case was measured. The impact of the return methods was compared against the benchmark, which shows that home pick-ups have the smallest performance gap with the benchmark for this retailer. Instore returns have the largest gap with the benchmark, indicating worse company performance and lower compliance with the EC targets. The scenario analysis showed how companies could use this CI to compare return improvement strategies with each other and provided potential solutions for companies to improve their performance.
Research limitations/implications - This research provides a tool for fashion companies to measure, analyze, and improve the environmental impact of returns on their performances with EC reduction targets while considering their costs and providing transparency. Customers and governments are provided with transparent information on what- and how a company measures the environmental impact of returns. Governments can use the CI and benchmark proposed in this paper as a transparent tool for environmental reporting and compare the performances of companies sector-wide. For academics, this research provides multiple research opportunities.
Originality/value - This paper contributes by creating a new CI for company performance measurement for fashion companies on the environmental and economic impact of product returns. A new measurement method that assesses the environmental and economic impact of the return activities is developed and gives insight into the differences between the return methods. Also, a new benchmark expressing target performance is developed and incorporated in this CI based on reduction targets of the EC to combat climate change. ... Read more

Ensuring sustainability in shipping extends beyond fuel choices to encompass the responsible use of materials in vessel construction and maintenance. Shifting from the prevailing 'take-make-dispose' model to a circular economy is crucial for enhancing sustainable waste reduction in the industry. Unlike consumer goods, current ship design primarily prioritizes functionality, cost, and operability, neglecting circularity considerations.
To integrate circularity into ship design, this project evaluates and compares frameworks like the butterfly diagram, Cradle-to-Cradle, 10R, and ReSOLVE. The chosen approach combines the 10R framework with the Material Circularity Indicator method, offering practical insights and manageable efforts for addressing circularity in ship design. The 10R framework includes strategies like Refuse, Reduce, Redesign, Reuse, Repair, Refurbish, Remanufacture, Repurpose, Recycle, and Recover, each providing a design strategy for circularity in consumer goods.
However, integrating these methods into standard design processes proves challenging due to the lack of structure. To overcome this, the 10R design strategies are fused with systems engineering, allowing for the assessment of circularity and identification of key areas for improvement in ship designs. This approach emphasises the need for a renewed system, enabling the redesign of systems with a dual focus on functionality and circularity.
Demonstrated through a case study on the wheelhouse, the framework assesses various sub-systems for their circularity levels and redesigns one sub-system, showcasing the potential for a systems engineering approach to enhance circularity. Supplier collaboration is pivotal for the framework's success, facilitating information exchange and elevating the circularity of products offered. ... Read more

Offshore wind energy can play a key role in the energy transition. Reducing installation costs for offshore wind installation projects helps to be cost-competitive with other renewable energy technologies. Installation costs can increase when the installation project planning is delayed. Literature shows that offshore wind installation projects are delayed by weather conditions exceeding operational limits and downtime caused by vessels and equipment. However, the magnitude and causes of downtime due to equipment breakdown are unclear. Additionally, no method is found in the literature to reduce downtime due to equipment breakdown in offshore wind installation. Data-analysis of observed failure data shows that equipment breakdown causes downtime during pinpile installation during the spring and summer seasons. Root-cause analysis indicates that scheduled preventive maintenance is often postponed on the critical path when weather conditions are favourable for installation. These decisions are made based on knowledge of oil and gas projects, but that knowledge is not applicable anymore. In this study a new method is proposed, which includes equipment characteristics and preventive maintenance on the critical path of an installation schedule, using discrete-event simulation (DES). In the DES model, four designs are simulated to gain insight into the effect of decision-making on the critical path on key performance indicators. The designs are based on the planned maintenance pillar of the Total Productive Maintenance framework. Implementing equipment breakdown and preventive maintenance in the installation schedule gives insight into the effects of decision-making before project execution. The results of this study indicate that the downtime due to breakdown and preventive maintenance of the hammer can be reduced by 10% if preventive maintenance is prioritized on the critical path. ... Read more

Abstract
Purpose - The aim of this paper is to propose a method for performance measurement of the livestock feed industry from an environmental and economic perspective. There is a knowledge gap both in the literature and society in the field of performance measurement of the livestock feed industry with environmental concerns. Livestock feed companies need support in the decision-making process to produce environmentally sustainable livestock feed at as low as possible costs.
Design/methodology/approach – An environmental performance index for livestock feed is constructed based on techniques of the min-max transformation, the analytic hierarchy process and simple additive weighting. The verified environmental performance index for livestock feed is brought into practice; different scenarios, which all represent a feed composition, are quantitatively compared to a benchmark feed composition. The environmental performance index is validated with an uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis.
Findings – The constructed environmental performance index for livestock feed is assessed by comparing nine scenarios against a benchmark feed composition. The results indicate that the environmental performance index for the livestock feed industry is technically feasible and effective to measure the performance of the livestock feed industry from an environmental and economic perspective.
Research implications – The constructed environmental performance index for
livestock feed can serve as a decision-making tool for livestock feed companies. As a response to climate regulations and a market pull, this paper provides a tool for livestock feed companies to select livestock feed compositions with the best performance based on environmental sustainability and economic performance.
Originality/value – A new performance measurement method is designed for an
environmental performance index for the livestock feed industry. From the literature, environmental sustainability variables are identified. The data on the environmental performance are obtained from a public database as well as a livestock feed company. The created index can contribute to decision-making in the livestock feed industry. ... Read more

There has been a growing interest in improving the operating efficiency of warehouses, which is one of the critical facilities used in the logistics sector. This thesis examines the impact of order characteristics on the performance of different configurations of the outbound logistics of a 3PL warehouse. A contingency approach combined with a proof of configuration method is used to answer this question. The contingency variables in this study are the order characteristics, which are uncertain for the future state of the newly built e-commerce warehouse Haaften III for Nedcargo Logistics, A third-party logistics provider in the Netherlands. Six contingency scenarios are chosen, and a model transforms them into experiments. Three different potential warehouse configuration models process these experiments, and their productivity performance is compared and analysed. Our results showed that the compactness of the layout, ABC-class-based storage and a new picking strategy, Star Aisle Batch combined with Singlepicks, provides the best productivity in each scenario. Next, between each scenario, the productivity is impacted differently. The productivity is higher if the order characteristics contain a low percentage of A-type products, the amount of colli is high, or orderlines per order are low. A change in configuration or strategy within each scenario also influences productivity differently. Lastly, it is also proved that the new proposed configuration and picking strategy can improve its current productivity by over 30%. ... Read more

Covid-19, the Suez canal blockade and a decreasing amount of larger shipping companies have changed the container shipping industry. A power shift from the exporter towards the shipping companies is occurring, paired with capacity constraints and surging container transportation prices indicating a global container shortage. Exporters of large volume mainly experience this with contract negotiations and are left with a choice for higher prices or less flexibility in contractual service conditions whilst striving to become more sustainable. This study answers the following research question: ‘How should large exporters like HNS weigh off transportation costs, flexibility in service conditions and environmental effects for contractual agreements in times of a global container shortage?’. This study poses several designs through the DMADE methodology to anticipate the aforementioned changes. It does so by modelling several designs based on contract variables, a modal shift and a production division based on geographical locations of breweries for Heineken Netherlands Supply. The study found that higher standard tariffs for container transportation should be preferred above less flexibility. Next to that a modal shift towards road transport is advised if the service conditions in contractual agreements become less flexible. ... Read more

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is considered an essential solution to reaching climate goals. The two main identified transport modes in CCS, pipelines and ships, are widely compared to each other in the literature. This research contributes to the literature about the evaluation of transportation modes in CCS chains, by determining to what extent electrified ships can play a role in CCS. This is not studied before. This research is executed by following the Systems Engineering approach, in particular the SIMIE process. In a proposed point-to-point network for onshore transportation, mainly general diesel-propelled barges would perform with the lowest costs per ton, whereby the distance ranges from 25 km up to 250 km. As longer the distances, more Tank-to-Wheel (TTW) emissions savings could be obtained if barge transport is electrified. Identifying the most accurate emissions reporting method and performing operational validation for modelling the transport modes and trajectories could provide the obtained results with more scientific and practical robustness. ... Read more

The costs for logistics has been increasing over the last few years, especially since the pandemic. This is felt in many supply chains and therefore it is important to explore avenues to reduce these costs. In this research a case study will be performed at MPO. MPO is a supply chain management company thatwould like to improve their services through the use of machine learning. Accordingly, in this research the main research question that will be answered is: "Howcan supply chain management be improved through the use of machine learning?". This study is split into five sub-questions where the first two sub-questions are aimed at the literature of supply chain management and machine learning respectively. The third sub-question dives into the case of MPO and selects an element, which will be looked at further in the research. To answer sub-question four, a conceptual model for the chosen element is made. The fifth and final sub-question measures the impact of conceptual model variants on the results of experiments performed on the selected element... ... Read more