This paper expands on the term ‘urban forest’ through spatial historical research and via the concept of Forestscape. The city of Delft in the western part of the Netherlands is taken as a case study, with the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries as the sample period. Based on a methodology examining the spatial history of Delft from both a processes and a patterns perspective, we identify six tree planting practices or ‘afforestation events’. These plantings were integral to the early modern cityscape to the extent that the spaces in which they were planted were typologically incomplete without them. We identify tree plantings in group, line, and volume arrangements and posit these arrangements as a foundational scale in a multi-scalar understanding of the urban forest. The term ‘plantation’ formed the leitmotif for these plantings, interpreting natural features such as copses, groves, woods, and forests. The case study also demonstrates how, even in the early modern period, tree arrangements were established for a variety of benefits which ostensibly resonate with the contemporary notion of ‘ecosystem services’, but that were instead part of an alternative sensibility of what ‘city’ and ‘nature’ is. In this frame, the term Forestscape offers a way forward to retroactively interpret the historic urban forest and counter the current binary city-versus-nature discourse. We find that the collection of tree arrangements established in Delft in the period 1500–1800 presents a ‘wooded watermark’ of the city, which in many instances was reanimated with new tree plantings, demonstrating how parts of an urban forest can become a fixture in the morphology of the city and the lives of its citizens. At the regional scale, the extent of tree plantings around Delft with urban ‘roots’ extends far into the urban hinterland, while at the same time, trees and wooded areas with rural ‘roots’ extend well into the urban area. This condition opens a discussion on the inter-relationship between urban and rural realms and challenges the simplistic division between these two worlds apparent in contemporary spatial planning and design.

This issue of SPOOL elaborates a designerly perspective on urban forestry. Evidence has increased rapidly in the recent years to confirm the agency of trees and urban forests to cure a number of ills besetting urban societies. An expanding range of disciplines, in varying and novel combinations, are turning to an urban version of forestry to re-configure green (and grey) infrastructures, re-write neighbourhoods, re-purpose derelict territories and re-vitalize disparate peripheries. As such, in the face of the growing number of challenges facing cities globally, we see that urban trees and forests are becoming increasingly central to spatial planning and design practise. And yet, with all this work done on the environmental, ecological, technical and recently also urbanism-related aspects of urban forestry (cf. Journal of Landscape Architecture 1/2023), its site-specific, spatial, aesthetical, and cultural dimensions have received less attention in research. For us as SPOOL editors, this is an invitation to focus on trees and forests from the vantage point of landscape architecture and the related thread of SPOOL, called ‘landscape metropolis’. This thematic thread addresses the dynamic, composite, and layered urban landscape with all its biotic and abiotic elements from a design perspective, with the intent to transcend the conventional city-countryside dichotomy, and to understand landscape as a permanent underlying subtext of the urban condition, with repercussions into the remotest corners of the globe. From a landscape metropolis perspective, cities are understood as complex territorial mosaics where the conventional categories of urban and non-urban give way to a mix of material environments in various stages of ‘naturalness’, or to put it another way: natures in various stages of becoming ‘cultured’. Building on the potentials of an alternative reading of the urban territory then, in this issue we feature a number of select authors who elaborate on this condition, expanding on a designerly frame of knowing and doing in urban forestry. Publication formats also help: besides regular papers, visual essays are featured as a lesser-known yet highly appropriate category of exploration for design research.

Background: The field of urban forestry encompasses many dimensions, of which that of visual-spatial perception, addressing the spatial relationship between city and trees, has received little attention. Analyzing the urban forest from a visual-spatial perspective is needed to understand relationships between different components as well as site-specific qualities. Methods: Tree configurations describe the relationship between form and space, determined by the relative disposition of the trees which result from an interaction between design and the development over time. Based on field observations, with the city of Delft in the Netherlands as a case study, 35 generic tree configuration types have been defined. With this “vocabulary,” specific tree configurations and their relations are researched, describing the urban forest from an eyelevel perspective as an essential level on which the spatiality of the urban forest can be understood. Results: Unraveling the urban forest components by comparing two emblematic ensembles of tree configurations allows an understanding of their heterogeneity as well as their coherence and dynamics. Conclusions: The relationship of the tree vocabulary with the specific location exposes their role as an ordering structure and a carrier of the identity of Delft, and their differentiation and site-specific qualities, revealing a composition of wooded areas each with their own characteristics, shows both urban and forested areas as equivalent components of an urban forest mosaic. This differentiation can be used as a tool for strengthening relations between the different components as well as diversity and heterogeneity in urban forests.

Het stadsbosmozaïek is verantwoordelijk voor structuur, oriëntatie, identiteit en betekenis, en zorgt uiteindelijk voor de leefbaarheid van een stad. Om de stad een leefbare plek te maken en te houden voor zijn (menselijke en niet-menselijke) stadsbewoners, ook in relatie tot vragen ten aanzien van klimaatadaptatie, economie, en ecologie, zou de boom een centraal gegeven moeten zijn bij de transformaties van de stad. Hij vormt de verbindende component tussen de verschillende dimensies en schalen van deze transformaties. Er spelen verschillende dimensies in het begrijpen van en het ontwerpen aan het stadsbos. Maar deze dimensies hebben niet allemaal dezelfde rol. Uit deze atlas komt de ruimtelijke dimensie en de historische verankering ervan naar voren als bepalende drager voor alle overige dimensies.

To understand the role of the urban forest for people and society a focus on the spatial-experiential aspect (in relation to the human body and human perception) is relevant: trees frame the space in which people move, act, experience and appreciate. ‘Tree language’ refers to the spatial relationship between tree species, planting configurations and plantations and their unique location.

The notion of ‘plantation’ is explored as one of the defining aspects of such a language (next to ‘species’ and ‘configuration’). ‘Plantation’ is proposed as a term to describe the wooded characteristics of areas in the urban realm, defined by a combination of characteristics of species, tree configurations and the density and morphology of the plantation, comparable to a natural forest mosaic which is also determined by commonalities in species and vegetation community structure, as well as having alternations of densely wooded and less wooded areas.

This reveals an urban landscape composed of a variegated wooded mosaic of plantations, which invariably transcend neighbourhood boundaries as well as common understandings of the boundary between city and countryside. In successive density and arrangement, in Delft seven types of plantations can be distinguished, connected and separated by the long lines, the avenues that traditionally formed the connections between Delft and the countryside like spokes in a wheel.

As the elementary unit of the urban forest, trees temper thermal extremes in urban microclimates through shading and evapotranspiration, and by altering the movement of air. Metrics on shade performances of different species, however, are currently limited, which can be remedied by the development of a method to describe the range of species and cultivars via a structured overview of physical characteristics impacting radiation reflectivity, absorptivity, and transmissivity. This paper proposes a descriptive framework based on the concept of “tree architecture,” which has developed into a recognized field of plant study from the perspective of their physiognomy, morphology, and morphogenesis. The framework describes various architectural sub-traits within the overall trait categories of Crown, Wood, and Foliage. The descriptive framework can be used to develop a “Cool Tree Architecture Typology” (C-TAT), in which trees can be organized into similar types based on common physical characteristics. Further elaboration of sub-traits using observations of trees in controlled field laboratories resulted in new derivative classes for use as key in classifications for the C-TAT. The C-TAT can be used to organize the many species and cultivars occurring in, for example, Cfb Atlantic climate zone cities, to a lesser number of architectural types. This allows for more rapid evaluation and cooling performance calculations of tree inventories and can also be of value in assisting tree managers to propose more accurate thermal performance standards for trees in urban projects. The elaboration of tree architecture from an urban microclimate perspective complements existing elaborations and approaches in the field of tree architecture.

Numerous challenges – from population increase to climate change – threaten the sustainable development of cities and call for a fundamental change of urban development and green-blue resource management. Urban forests are vital in this transition, as they provide various ecosystem services and allow to re-shape and re-think cities. Based on a Europe-wide community effort with diverse experts centered around urban forests and urban greening, we propose five key research fields to generate the knowledge required to unlock fundamental changes in urban development and green-blue resource management: circular bioeconomy, climate resilience, governance, social and human environment, and biodiversity. To support the design of greener, cooler, more inclusive and resilient cities, all these research fields require inter- and transdisciplinary collaboration, engaging stakeholders in transforming urban engagement and functioning. We summarise main inter-, trans- and multi-disciplinary research paths for each field and the cross-cutting knowledge areas that can help to address the challenges many cities face (e.g., modelling and assessment of the urban microclimate). For transforming cities further knowledge is needed on e.g., urban innovation, transition, participation, and more. Finally, we address how the identified research gaps can be implemented (e.g., international coordinated research effort, interdisciplinary networks).

This book is about the first ten years of the master track in Landscape Architecture at the Department of Urbanism in the Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment at TU Delft. It delves into the personal, educational, didactical, organizational and, above all, substantive dimensions of the teaching of this appealing and highly relevant discipline at the academic level. The book has three parts. The first part – PROFILE – discusses the context and events that led up to the development of the master track and influenced its further development – from the very first landscape architecture related appointments and initiatives in the 1940s to the first day in September 2010 when the programme began with seven participants, and on to the celebration of its tenth anniversary in 2021. Infographics show the numbers and profiles of the student population and illustrate the structure of the master curriculum. The second section – WORK – contains snapshots of drawings, photos, collages and other graphic material produced by our students. The images are loosely grouped according to the five stages in the design process: exploring, understanding, conceptualizing, modifying and engineering the landscape. Interspersed with this kaleidoscopic variety of images you will find a series of short essays on key topics in landscape architecture education written by the present staff of the Landscape Architecture section. Finally, at the end of the book you will find a few lists – PEOPLE – of all those involved: students, staff and guest lecturers. They are the ones who made and still make the master track such a wonderful community to belong to.

The multi-dimensionality of BwN calls for the incorporation of ‘designerly ways of knowing and doing’ from other fields involved in this new trans-disciplinary approach. The transition out of a focus on rational design paradigms towards reflective design paradigms such as those employed in the spatial design disciplines may be a first step in this process. By extension, the knowledge base and design methodologies of BwN may be critically expanded by drawing on ways of knowing and doing in spatial design disciplines such as landscape architecture, which elaborates the agency of the term ‘landscape’ as counterpart to the term ‘nature’. Operative perspectives and related methodologies in this discipline such as perception, anamnesis, multi-scalar thinking, and process design resonate with specific themes in the BwN approach such as design of/with natural processes, integration of functions or layers in the territory and the connection of engineering works to human-social contexts. A series of installations realised for the Oerol festival on the island of Terschelling between 2011 and 2018 serve as case studies to elaborate potential transfers and thematic elaborations towards BwN. In these projects inter-disciplinary teams of students, researchers and lecturers developed temporary landscape installations in a coastal landscape setting. Themes emerging from these project include ‘mapping coastal landscapes as complex natures’, ‘mapping as design-generative device’, ‘crowd-mapping’, ‘people-place relationships’, ‘co-creation’, ‘narrating coastal landscapes’, ‘public interaction’ and ‘aesthetic experience’. Specific aspects of these themes relevant to the knowledge base and methodologies of BwN, include integration of sites and their contexts through descriptive and projective mappings, understanding the various spatial and temporal scales of a territory as complex natures, and the integration of collective narratives and aesthetic experiences of coastal infrastructures in the design process, via reflective dialogues.

1.Domain & Initiative2. Embedding 3.Scope & Focus 4.Research Projects & Initiatives 5.Education 6.Valorization 7.Outcomes & Deliverables 8.Advisory Board 9.Researchers 10.Areas for further research 11. Graduation Lab Urban Forestry 12. References

Rhine Delta cities demonstrate particular patterns, features and details of urban green space, of which trees and woodlands form historically critical components. Urban green spaces in Dutch lowland cities are shaped by the specific abiotic and biotic conditions of lowland landscapes, and by planning and design practices responding to ongoing developments in the technological, environmental and societal realm. Rapid developments in these realms however, are expected to radically impact on the agency of urban forestry, with both positive and negative consequences. An adequate overview of these developments is needed to frame future directions of the discipline, in relation to the existing body of knowledge and directions for future research. In the context of Dutch lowland cities, extensive impacts are expected from climate adaptation, the transition to sustainable energy and a circular economy, the anticipated revolution in mobility and transportation, and patterns of agglomeration. The current body of knowledge on urban forestry in the Netherlands is currently insufficiently elaborated to deal with these developments in a proactive way, such that it is unlikely that the full potential of trees and woodlands will be realized during the anticipated transformation of urban territories catalyzed by these developments.

The WeSense pilot trialled in the Greater Amsterdam region, demonstrates that Social Sensing using mobile electronic devices is effective in the collection of real-time, location-specific data from citizens and visitors on perceptions and responses to a wide variety of environments in metropolitan areas. This form of data generation also allows for the inclusion of a range of critical parameters affecting perception, such as: time of the day, day of the week, season, weather, activity, company, and state of mind. Additional incorporation of sensorial aspects such as visual, auditory, and olfactory sensations in the WeSense pilot shows promise, but needs to be better incorporated. The WeSense platform shows that use of social sensing using mobile technology supplements traditional environmental research methods by facilitating situated responses. Users contribute data on how they experience an outdoors space while they are situated in that space (situated data creation) which reproduces their immediate impressions with the surroundings. The most immediate ‘proofing’ of this advantage is the generation of photos by different users.

Discussion on the synergies between scientific and artistic endeavour is a recurring topic in academia, but has gathered a new momentum since the turn of the millennium in response to among other things the urgency of global challenges such as climate change. Aside from some incidental experiments however, a more fundamental and structural synergy between the realms of science and art has to date not emerged. Synergies have been hampered by reservations about the compromising of scientific integrity on the one hand, and artistic creativity and autonomy on the other, but have also been hampered by the fundamental differences between both realms. By extension, viable methodologies to bring both realms together, which might uphold disciplinary independence and integrity, have to date been lacking. Design and design thinking has been mooted as an area which might offer a way forward in this debate. The role of spatial design disciplines forms a small but critical chapter in this discussion. A potential complement to this discussion are approaches from the discipline of landscape architecture, which distinguishes itself by the critical role of site and context in the design process, a working through various scales of design, the development of narratives, and the attention to phenomenology and experience. The chair of landscape architecture has received structural funding from the Delta Infrastructures and Mobility Initiative (DIMI) in 2012, 2016 and 2018 to participate in the Oerol Festival on the island of Terschelling in the Netherlands. In terms of discussion of design vs engineering (from the perspective of landscape architecture), there has been a critical impact of site and island context on the design concept. Site readings - particularly the morphological development of the island over a long period - has inputted to the development of an historically-informed scheme. The scale of the installation is also derivative of its context, and the intention to create a form which has the scale of the island and its dune system. The stitching concept moreover, also offered the opportunity to test the effect of different angles of hessian panelling on sand movement and accretion. In relation to the broader discussion of the synergy of science and art, the project can be seen as an example of ‘designerly ways of knowing’ which breach both realms. These include the incorporation of characteristics of the site and its (island) context, and the spatial and experiential aspects of a landscape installation.

Expected sea-level rise poses an increasing threat to Dutch coastal areas. Continuous
human interventions in these areas aim to prevent the lowlands from drowning.
This booklet shows the process and results of aeolis-gap the border developed during the elective course Landscape Architecture ON Site, offered by TU Delft MSc Landscape Architecture. As part of the research program related to coastal defence, the group developed an architectural intervention in the dune landscape to accelerate the growth of dunes.
The Wadden islands have been barrier islands for the Netherlands for hundreds of years but due to the rising sea level they are under great pressure. Therefore, the Oerol Festival at Terschelling is a great platform to experiment and understand this concept and interweaving it with art. Landscape, art and science come together in this project. The design process is based on experiences of the place, experiments, prototyping results of theoretical and landscape studies, workshops and brainstorm sessions.

This study enlarges on the notion of composition in landscape architecture. It builds upon the ‘Delft method’, which elaborates composition as a methodological framework from its sister discipline architecture. At the same time takes a critical stance in respect to this framework, informed by recent epistemological developments in landscape architecture such as the site-specificity and process discourses. The notion of composition is examined from a historical and theoretical perspective, before turning to an examination of the brownfield park project realised in the period 1975-2015. These projects emerge as an important laboratory and catalyst for developments in landscape architecture, whereby contextual, process, and formal-aesthetic aspects emerge as central themes. The thesis of this research is that a major theoretical and methodological expansion of the notion of composition can be distilled from the brownfield park project, in which seemingly irreconcilable paradigms such as site and process are incorporated. By extension, the study elaborates on the disciplinary specificity of landscape architecture as distinct to its sister disciplines architecture and urbanism, propositioning a ‘radical maturation’ of the foundations of the discipline in the period 1975 – 2015, via the brownfield park project. A metaphor for this process is offered by the phenomenon of ecdysis in arthropods (such as the blue swimmer crab), whereby the growth from juvenile to adult takes place in stages involving the moulting of an inelastic exoskeleton. Once shed, a larger exoskeleton is formed, whose shape and character is significantly different to its forebears. The research sketches the contours of a similar ‘disciplinary ecdysis’ in the period 1975-2015, whereby an evolution of design-as-composition praxis in landscape architecture takes place. In the slipstream of these findings, the research sheds new light on the shifts in the form and content of the city itself in this period, and the agency of the urban park in the problematique of the contemporary urban realm. In the cases studied, the park typology has been able to address problems that much of the traditional apparatus of spatial planning and design has failed to do. By extension, the study reveals that many of the paradigms of urban planning and design are in need of major review in the context of deindustrialization. The urban park typology – in its guise as the brownfield park – also appears also able to shape and qualify larger urban regions. As such, the research highlights the rise of brownfield lands and their impact on the fabric of the city, the life of their inhabitants and the paradigms that dominate urban cultures, in turn fundamentally revising the definitions and agencies of notions such as city, nature and landscape.

This booklet shows the results of a project developed at the TU Delft in a Master elective course offered by the chair of Landscape Architecture: Landscape Architecture ON site. The project revolves around the realization of a temporary, interactive ‘design-and-build’ project in a landscape setting, for the yearly Oerol festival held on the island of Terschelling in June each year. Students research, conceptualize and construct an installation to be visited by festival public.
The project combines specific landscape conditions of a site with the interaction of visitors and the dynamics of onsite construction, exploring the role of spatial designers in situated, interactive projects.
Students: Bella Bluemink, Eva Ventura, Eva Willemsen, Federica Sanchez, Ge Hong, Ilya Tasioula, Jan Gerk de Beer, Joey Liang, Lukas Kropp, Maël Vanhelsuwé, IVIax Einerf IVlichelle Siemerink, Qingyun Lin, Timothy Radhitya Djagiri.Yao Lu.
Tutors chair of Landscape Architecture: D.Piccinini and R.van der Velde