We are grateful for Darwish's interest in our paper, Fouad et al. (2025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004883). In this reply, we show that Fouad et al. (2025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004883) did not attribute building collapses in Alexandria solely to hydroclimatic factors, as stated in the comment. Instead, we emphasize that hydroclimatic drivers are presented as accelerators, with other anthropogenic influences explicitly stated in the original paper. Moreover, our response proves that Darwish (2026, https://doi.org/10.1029/2025ef006885)'s simplistic statistical approach is physically incorrect and obscures absolute risk by normalizing actual building collapse rates to the total number of buildings within a city. Furthermore, our reply shows that the comment conflates the distinct measurement of soil relaxation using shallow isotope mapping at the city scale, as conducted in Fouad et al. (2025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004883), with deep structural geotechnical assessments for foundation design of individual buildings. The utility and complementarity of both methods are already discussed in Fouad et al. (2025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004883). We acknowledge that the statement on the “7,000 at-risk buildings” is only mentioned in the abstract and is inadvertently missed in the main text; however, the calculation leading to this result is detailed in our supplementary data set and methods. Accordingly, Darwish (2026, https://doi.org/10.1029/2025ef006885)'s comment, while appreciated, misinterprets Fouad et al. (2025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024EF004883) and overlooks the contemporary literature on Alexandria's hydrogeological and coastal dynamic contexts and their implications for infrastructure instability. ... Read more

Historic urban areas (HUAs) are visually and culturally sensitive environments where blue-green infrastructure (BGI) plays an increasingly important role in shaping spatial identity and environmental quality. While BGI's ecological functions are well documented, its influence on human visual perception, particularly within HUAs, remains largely unexplored. Addressing this gap, this paper proposes an integrative framework to assess how BGI affects visual experiences in heritage contexts, bridging methodological, perceptual, and user-group dimensions. By combining UAV-based photogrammetry with a three-layered perception model, the research integrates spatial analysis and empirical methods across seeing (eye-tracking), feeling (questionnaire), and understanding (interviews) layers. Street-level BGI exposure was spatially quantified and used to inform perception experiments involving both expert and general public groups. This multi-methodological, multi-layered, cross-group approach extends existing research by providing a comprehensive examination of BGI's visual impact at different cognitive levels, particularly within historic settings. Findings reveal that BGI enhances perceptual diversity, visual preference evaluation, and cognitive engagement across both groups. Although it may slightly divert attention from dominant heritage features, BGI fosters broader visual exploration and higher environmental ratings. Experts interpret BGI through more systemic and functional perspectives, while the public emphasizes emotional, aesthetic, and recreational values. Overall, this study presents a replicable framework integrating digital spatial modeling with layered perception analysis, offering new insights for evaluating and enhancing visual environments in HUAs. It supports more inclusive visual assessments and provides a basis for informed planning and selective design interventions in heritage contexts. ... Read more

Cultural landscapes are increasingly vulnerable to the compounded effects of potential risks, ecological degradation, and imbalanced heritage value perceptions under intensifying climate change and global urbanization pressures. However, there is a lack of framework that systematically integrates geographical hazards, ecological sensitivity, and both expert and public heritage value perceptions to guide differentiated conservation and development of cultural landscapes. This study proposes a Hazard-Ecology-Perception Landscape Planning (HEPLP) framework to provide a spatially explicit decision-support tool that unifies hazard, ecology, and perception dimensions for cultural landscape planning. HEPLP is evaluated in a case study of Chengde Mountain Resort. A GIS-based methodology is employed to characterize geographical hazards and ecological sensitivity by combining concept of entropy and Analytic Hierarchy Process. Expert scoring and large language model content analysis are used to map heritage value perceptions. Risk-based analysis and three-dimensional clustering revealed nine distinct clusters in cultural landscape, providing spatially grounded evidence for targeted conservation and development strategies. This includes many scenes where previously implemented landscape planning strategies have been designated for complete conservation, as well as clusters where trade-offs between ecological sensitivity and heritage value perception are carefully balanced. Unlike previous frameworks that focused on single or dual dimensions, HEPLP offers an integrative tool for sustainable cultural landscape conservation and development under environmental and social challenges. ... Read more

Street view imagery (SVI) is widely used in urban visual analysis and often treated as equivalent to eye-level perception. Yet its limitations and contextual applicability remain underexplored. This paper conducts a diagnostic viewpoint-level comparison of an image-based SVI pipeline and a 3D model-based field-of-view (FOV) method to clarify their respective weaknesses, strengths, and how they can be combined in practice (rather than treated as interchangeable or numerically fused). Using the West Lake ring road in Hangzhou as a case study, we analyze 2140 panoramas at 1075 viewpoints. The comparison shows systematic differences: SVI produces higher green shares (+0.16 on average), while FOV yields higher paved ground (+0.13) and building shares (+0.08). Sky differs little overall, water remains minor, and cross-method consistency varies by segment; SVI displays greater local variability linked to canopy occlusion and near-field heterogeneity. A small perception survey validates these findings. Terrain relief and building height were recognized more consistently in FOV, while vegetation and water abundance aligned more closely with SVI. Participants also judged overall ambience more easily from FOV’s structural stability, even though SVI conveyed greater visual realism. These results reveal clear complementarities: FOV provides structure-aware metrics, SVI emphasizes appearance cues, and neither alone captures lived perception. On this basis, we propose a combination-oriented three-layer workflow, with perception as a required validation layer to support reliable applications in skyline and openness control, interface and character management, greenery maintenance, and equity assessment. ... Read more

Incremental urban and community expansion in rural heritage landscapes often produces cumulative visual impacts, yet planning rarely specifies a clear endpoint for acceptable change. This paper proposes an integrated Visual Impact Assessment (VIA) framework, aligned with SDG 11, to determine “when to stop” using stage-comparable evidence across past, present, and future conditions. The framework is organized in three modules. First, a point cloud-enhanced GIS module quantifies visibility and spatial change across development stages. Second, an enhanced Key Observation Point (KOP) module derives matched eye-level evidence from multi-temporal street-level panoramas and scenario visualizations, for example using Street View Imagery (SVI) time series and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) rendering. Third, a decision layer integrates structured public acceptability from a questionnaire covering different respondent groups with in-depth expert interviews and synthesis, with virtual reality (VR) eye- and head-tracking used as supportive behavioral evidence. Applied to the Middenbeemster expansion in the Beemster Polder, the Netherlands, the framework yields a case-calibrated reference package for decision support: KOP-based construction intensity serves as the primary reference line for review, perception indicators serve as supporting guardrails, spatial character metrics act as case-specific reference checks to protect the polder framework, and visibility diagnostics remain a necessary screening layer. More broadly, the framework provides a transparent and replicable procedure that can be transferred and locally recalibrated for heritage-sensitive rural-urban fringes where change is incremental and cumulative, supporting a stage-comparable VIA approach. ... Read more

Urban agriculture and farming (UAF) initiatives are recognised for their potential to enhance urban resilience, support local food systems, and deliver ecosystem services. However, current scholarship remains fragmented, treating UAF initiatives as isolated green interventions, rather than integrated components of urban fabric. This study examines how landscape-based approaches (LbAs) and systems thinking (ST) have been applied concurrently to analyse and design these initiatives. We argue that LbA is necessary to provide the spatial logic for physical integration, while ST provides the functional logic for metabolic efficiency. This systematic literature review screened 92 records across Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, resulting in a refined corpus of 12 peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and 2025. This reflects the nascent state of an interdisciplinary approach at this intersection. Utilising VOSviewer and Atlas.ti, the study identified four thematic clusters: urban green infrastructure, urban food systems, landscape planning, and socio-ecological systems. A cross-comparative analysis of these clusters and their underlying methodologies led to a new theoretical dual-lens systemic landscape framework to evaluate the sustainability outcomes of UAF. The findings reveal limited integration of spatial analysis with systems thinking across scales. This review contributes a novel multi-scale methodology that emphasises the need for integrated spatial and systemic interdependencies to achieve truly resilient urban food systems. ... Read more

Visual experience is a primary channel through which the values of tangible cultural heritage are perceived and governed, making visual evaluation and management central to conservation and to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.4. However, practice remains fragmented across scales, and many statutory toolkits lag behind advances in geographic information systems (GIS)-based visibility analysis, 3D visualization, remote sensing, and perception-based evidence. We compile, code, and cross-analyze a multi-level corpus spanning 26 international instruments, 293 national items from 112 countries, and 867 World Heritage properties. Using a four-dimensional framework (values, typology, visual-evaluation methods, and visual-management strategies), we apply k-medoids clustering with multidimensional scaling (MDS) at the national level, mask-aware association mapping at the property level, and cross-level diagnostics. Across levels, practice converges on a technical-spatial regime. At the property level, GIS-based viewshed and visual sensitivity analysis, verified visuals and 3D visualization techniques, and GIS-based spatial-historical analysis form a near-universal methodological core and are most frequently translated into zoning and spatial regulation and height or massing controls. Participatory and perception- or experience-based methods remain sporadic. Value framings are dominated by Historic, Social and Political, and Aesthetic emphases, while Ecological and Scientific are comparatively marginal. Cross-level coherence is strongest where governance frameworks are mature, and portfolios are coherent; it weakens where portfolios are heterogeneous or in federated or lower-capacity settings. National portfolios cluster into four method-strategy regimes that explain characteristic object-method-strategy sequences. In response, we outline operational bridges including tiered standards for visibility and 3D evidence, deployable perception protocols, participation modules linked to Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) or Visual Impact Assessment (VIA) triggers, and auditable communication packages. These are organized within a Global Peer Network aligned to portfolio archetypes and method-strategy regimes. The study contributes a reusable global dataset and map of visual-heritage practice and an integration framework that supports more transparent, comparable, and context-sensitive decisions across levels. ... Read more

Urban agriculture is increasingly recognized as a multifunctional lever for urban sustainability, yet the mechanisms through which planning policies enable or constrain its integration into city systems remain poorly understood. This gap limits the development of evidence-based frameworks that can bridge policy intent and implementation practice. This study develops a transparent, multilingual content-analysis pipeline and a landscape-informed coupling framework to evaluate urban agriculture policy–practice alignment across three contrasting governance contexts: Havana (Cuba), New York City (USA), and Chongming Island (China). Using a PRISMA-ScR literature synthesis (n = 3145), we construct a five-domain, 40-keyword evaluation matrix and apply it to official policy corpora and flagship project documentation. Results show that human-centered approaches effectively translate social equity and food-provisioning aims but exhibit limited spatial integration; nature-based approaches advance ecological and morphological targets but underperform on participation; and the landscape-informed model achieves more balanced alignment across all five domains, though gaps persist in inter-layer connectivity. Situating these findings within the broader discourse on urban sustainability governance, we propose a multi-layered landscape framework spanning ecological, institutional, social, and spatial dimensions. This framework offers planners a structured diagnostic and prescriptive tool for embedding urban agriculture into integrated urban transitions. ... Read more

In the context of Chilean Metropolises such as Santiago, Valparaíso, and Concepción, ecological and social fragmentation of cities lead to significant environmental disturbances, including alterations to the urban climate, loss of biodiversity, and the gradual suppression of ecological corridors and native habitats, ultimately heightening current and future risks, and degrading the quality of life for urban residents stemming from excessive urbanisation, ineffective planning, maladaptive design, and environmental management in critical natural areas. Although an abundance of general frameworks and principles already exist, they necessitate a more contextual and integral approach that considers the natural dynamics of the landscape (landscape logic) as a base for social and economic development. This research presented a landscape approach taking the city of Valparaíso, Chile, as a case study. A methodological framework utilising mixed methods, was developed to analyse and diagnose potentialities of the landscape for developing practical knowledge for planning and design, conscious of the community demands and capacities, its ecological system and its complex geomorphology, and the future applications and assessment in biodiversity terms and social impact. A design-related research opens the opportunity as a methodology that will make it possible to incorporate different types of expertise and work on various scales. This research provides a means for developing spatial guidelines and design principles to strengthen Valparaíso’s green/blue infrastructure at multiple scales. It will ensure water security, biodiversity conservation, safer and more inclusive spaces, and better integration of informal settlements while enhancing ecosystem services for the community. Additionally, by incorporating the natural dynamics of the landscape, this approach provides ways to reduce risk, promote adaptation, and build resilience. ... Read more

Urban heritage landscapes, with their layered cultural and aesthetic values, require precise visual analysis to support conservation and planning. However, existing visual analysis methods are often fragmented and fail to fully capture their complex visual-spatial characteristics. To address this gap, this paper proposes a combined visual analysis framework that integrates four GIS-based visual analysis methods—cumulative viewshed (CV), visual magnitude (VM), field of view (FOV) analysis, and street-view image (SVI) segmentation. These methods were applied to the UNESCO World Heritage Site of West Lake in Hangzhou, China, to explore lake–city–landscape relationships, classify lakeside landscape types, and interpret the spatial composition of iconic viewpoints. Findings indicate that: (a) four zones with both high CV and VM values coincide with key architectural and scenic landmarks, suggesting intentional spatial design strategies, while half of the “Ten Scenic Places” are influenced by symbolic or experiential factors beyond visibility; (b) 37 landscape types were identified along lakeside roads, revealing areas where vegetation obscures potential lake views and where design trade-offs are evident; (c) only two of ten potential city-to-lake visual corridors remain unobstructed, pointing to unmanaged vegetation as a critical barrier; and (d) these insights inform targeted visual management strategies, including vegetation control, viewpoint activation, and circulation optimization. This study highlights the limitations of single-method approaches, such as SVI's insensitivity to topographic variation, and suggests that a multi-perspective integration of VAMs can yield deeper spatial insights and more actionable guidance for managing urban heritage landscapes. ... Read more

Global climate change and rapid urbanization have intensified flood risks worldwide, especially in cross-regional watersheds where jurisdictions often implement mitigation strategies independently. Although grey infrastructure is widely used to address these heightened risks, its fragmented application frequently shifts hazards to adjacent regions and causes adverse ecological impacts. In contrast, green infrastructure (GI), an interconnected network of natural and semi-natural areas, offers a promising nature-based solution, yet variability in terrain, soils, land use, and hydrological connectivity complicates the development of universal GI planning guidelines. Thus, this study addresses two critical questions: (1) How do changes in flood risk management performance (FRMP) in one region affect neighboring regions? (2) How can GI planning be tailored to watershed heterogeneity? Focusing on three contiguous regions in China's Yangtze River Delta Ecological Green Integration Demonstration Zone, we simulated flood processes using the SCS-MIKE11 hydrological-hydrodynamic model, optimized GI spatial configurations via Simulated Annealing, and applied the TOPSIS to select configurations that balance FRMP across all regions. Results show: (1) significant interregional FRMP correlations, with midstream negatively correlated with upstream (p <0.001) and downstream (p <0.001); (2) dispersed GI spatial configurations better accommodate watershed heterogeneity; (3) prioritizing FRMP at regional boundaries when configuring GI effectively mitigates watershed-wide flood risks; (4) distributive justice, integrated land and water management are essential for cross‐regional flood challenges. This study reveals interregional FRMP coupling and pioneers a heterogeneity-responsive GI optimization, offering planners a novel decision-support tool for coordinated GI planning for cross-regional flood risk management. ... Read more

Population growth and urbanization are straining the limited space in the built environment. The business districts take up a great portion of this built space. These districts face climate change hazards and spatial emptiness due to their profit-driven foundation. Sustainable ambitions and strategic locations offer the potential to rethink business districts and integrate them into the living environment. Understanding business districts as potential workscapes, more socio-ecological inclusive business districts, is a new perspective. This research formulates a method to define the spatial quality of business districts through literature review and spatial analysis. A spatial analysis of forty cases in the Netherlands presents a higher spatial quality on more diverse landscapes. This indicates that diversification of the business districts’ landscape from monotone to multitone is needed to enable workscape development. Landscape-driven urbanism is needed to generate this desired level of quality. The research highlights the strategic location of edge-city business districts, situated between urban and rural areas, showing the potential to strengthen the urban-rural relationship. Further research on and by design is needed to enable workscape development. ... Read more

Rapid urbanization and climate change are the driving forces behind changing the urban landscape and affecting natural resources and the environment, particularly in the megacities of arid regions. Many of these cities face an acute water crisis leading to over-exploitation of groundwater resources. This over-exploitation has led to the depletion of aquifers, land infertility, saline intrusion, land subsidence, and harm to hydrological ecosystems. Globally, numerous studies have documented the potential of groundwater recharge (GWR) using GIS and remote sensing techniques. However, its practical application in a landscape context for sustainable urban and regional development is underexplored. In this study, we developed the landscape-based GWR concept by conducting a case study of Karachi city (Pakistan). We took physical landscape (surface and sub-surface) features and groundwater recharge potential as a base for design and planning to improve groundwater recharge and urban landscape. Moreover, we highlighted the added values of this approach besides recharging the depleted ground hydrological conditions and improving the urban landscape condition (i.e., social–ecological inclusiveness, sustainable future development, and interdisciplinary collaboration). The results indicated a negative impact of urbanization on groundwater recharge, especially in the alluvial zones and river valleys, underscoring the need for a spatial approach to safeguard GWR and guide development. Through this study, we propose that landscape-based GWR can be one of the potential solutions not only for the critical water crisis faced by rapidly urbanizing arid megacities but also for improving the overall quality of life and urban landscape. Furthermore, this holistic approach toward groundwater recharge can guide future urban development patterns, preservation of high groundwater recharge potential sites, and evolution toward sustainable development in arid regions where groundwater is the most significant yet vulnerable resource. ... Read more

Rapid urbanization poses major challenges to biodiversity, climate resilience, and social equity, as cities continue to expand into vulnerable natural landscapes. Addressing these pressures requires nature-based solutions that place landscape systems at the core of urban development. A landscape-based and regenerative approach works with natural processes, ecological networks, and cultural landscapes to guide sustainable urban growth. Through regional design, landscape logic is used to integrate nature, people, and history, enabling the regeneration of urban regions that support biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. This approach aligns global sustainability goals with place-specific strategies, fostering resilient and inclusive urban landscapes. ... Read more

Basisbegrippen architectuur, landschapsarchitectuur, stedenbouw biedt een introductie op zestien fundamentele begrippen voor de (toekomstige) ruimtelijk ontwerper. Basisbegrippen zijn de sleutel tot het verwoorden en verbeelden van ideeën en denkbeelden binnen de bouwkunde. Een goede beheersing van de veelgebruikte begrippen binnen de vakgebieden architectuur, landschapsarchitectuur en stedenbouw maakt het mogelijk om in een ontwerpproces te communiceren met vakgenoten, opdrachtgevers, (toekomstige) gebruikers en het grote publiek.

Basisbegrippen architectuur, landschapsarchitectuur, stedenbouw is samengesteld door het team ‘Grondslagen’ verbonden aan de faculteit Bouwkunde van de TU Delft. Het handboek bevat bijdragen van Klaske Havik, Willemijn Wilms Floet, Saskia de Wit, Gregory Bracken, Chris Woltjes, Robin Ringel. ... Read more

The increasing recognition of the health benefits of blue spaces highlights their crucial role in constructing Healthy Cities and advancing Sustainable Development Goals. Given that promoting recreational running represents a fundamental pathway to harnessing these benefits, integrating it into spatial planning and design is imperative. Nevertheless, this integration process necessitates substantiated evidence, especially concerning variances among population groups. To address this gap, utilising crowdsourced data and a machine learning approach, this study investigates heterogeneous spatial distributions of recreational running across various age demographics in Rotterdam, with a specific emphasis on visual perceptions and built environments. The mapping results illustrate the varied allure of blue spaces for recreational running, exhibiting a trend of increased clustering in running activities with age, extending beyond the city centre. The outcomes of GWR and spatial regression models indicate significant associations between various visual perception factors and built environment indicators with individual running preferences. Crucially, disparities and spatial heterogeneity are evident in the impacts of different environmental factors on running across age groups. Accordingly, tailored planning strategies and patterns are proposed, informed by age-specific environmental perceptions and preferences, contributing to a deeper understanding of the blue-health mechanism and offering practical insights for creating health-promoting blue spaces. ... Read more

Groundwater is a vital resource for ecosystems, with its recharge process influenced by climate change and urbanization. The transformation of natural and urban landscapes and the over-extraction of groundwater contribute to its depletion and degradation. Groundwater recharge and management are intricately linked to land use and the landscape. Despite this close connection, spatially integrating groundwater recharge strategies in the landscape context remains underexplored. This systematic review synthesizes state-of-the-art research at the intersection of spatial planning, landscapes, and groundwater recharge. We employed a combination of bibliometric visualization and thematic analysis and reviewed 126 studies published between 1990 and April 2024 from the Scopus and Web of Science databases. Based on their objectives and outcomes, we found four prominent themes in these clusters: groundwater recharge potential studies, groundwater vulnerability studies, design-based studies, and participatory studies. When organized iteratively, these clusters can become potential building blocks of a framework for a landscape-based groundwater recharge approach. With interdisciplinary collaboration, spatial visualization and mapping, a co-creative design, and a feedback mechanism at its core, this approach can enhance stakeholder communication and translate highly specialized technical knowledge into adaptive, actionable insights. This study also highlights that including spatial design can help develop landscape-based groundwater recharge for long-term sustainable regional development. ... Read more

This research explores landscape-based solutions (LBS) as an integrated, transdisciplinary approach to address the interlinked challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, and water insecurity. LBS aim to regenerate living landscapes by combining ecological science, indigenous knowledge, and spatial design. Rooted in local conditions—such as climate, ecology, water, and cultural history—LBS support inclusive, multifunctional landscapes that enhance both ecological resilience and social equity. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combines global mapping of Indigenous and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (IEK/TEK), a survey of practical LBS applications, and engagement in real-time landscape projects in Indonesia, the Netherlands, and Germany. A cross-case analysis reveals diverse strategies and shared success factors, including grounding in local systems, strong community involvement, and adaptive, multi-scalar design. The ultimate goal is to influence global water governance by demonstrating the value of integrating ancestral knowledge into contemporary landscape strategies. In alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals—especially SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land)—this research promotes ecologically sound and culturally rooted solutions. It contributes to a transferable framework for sustainable landscape planning in both urban and rural contexts. ... Read more

The development of information technologies and the advent of extensive digital data since the 21st century have enabled more profound explorations and interpretations of the relationship between humans and the urban environment. This study systematically reviews the application of emerging data-driven methods in measuring human-environment interaction in urban spaces. The synthesis of 242 studies reveals a diversified application landscape of data-driven methods, employing street view imagery data, social media data, positioning data, physiological data, and video data, each carrying distinct information and addressing various research inquiries. We also review the new insights generated by their application, which offered evidence for analyzing and evaluating a wide range of established frameworks and classic theories concerning human perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects in urban spaces. Based on these findings, we describe the trends, advancements, and limitations of this rising research field, and make recommendations for future researchers adopting data-driven methods to understand relationships between humans and environments in urban spaces. ... Read more

This article examines the planning history of Siraf, an ancient port city on the Persian Gulf in Iran, through the lens of water heritage landscape. It argues that Siraf's water infrastructure was not a product of incremental, vernacular adaptation to aridity, but the result of deliberate urban planning rooted in Sassanid imperial policy, religious cosmology, and environmental knowledge. Drawing on archaeological evidence, historical texts, and spatial analysis, it explores how water collection, storage, and distribution systems were integrated into the urban fabric and aligned with settlement growth. The paper reframes five functionally zoned components of Siraf's water landscape as products of early planning rather than passive responses. It also engages with competing historical interpretations and recent revaluations of this infrastructure as heritage. By foregrounding the role of planning in enabling urban life in a water-scarce environment, this study contributes to planning history discourse and offers insights for contemporary planners grappling with sustainability and heritage in dryland cities. Siraf's case exemplifies how ancient urban resilience emerged from engineering ingenuity and coordinated spatial and infrastructural foresight. ... Read more