With climate change increasing the frequency and severity of heat waves in the Netherlands, the risk of buildings overheating poses a critical challenge to occupant health, energy efficiency, and sustainability goals. Despite regulatory progress on reducing energy-related emissions, current renovation practices often overlook overheating issues.
This study addresses this gap by integrating heat hazard loss as cost into a probabilistic cost-benefit analysis to assess the long-term benefits of improving resilience. The method can assist in decision-making when retrofitting by informing about the financial feasibility of mitigation, including the impact of recurring extreme events.
In a case study, renovation alternatives were tested on a housing unit in Rotterdam. The performance was evaluated considering energy efficiency, heat resilience, and carbon footprint. Using the developed framework, the distribution of costs and cost recovery under climate uncertainty were investigated.
The findings show that while passive cooling measures can significantly reduce overheating, their cost recovery is limited under current climate conditions. Still, the financial analysis shows that resilience improvements prevent operational cost from overshooting in the worst-case scenarios. Finally, integrating heating with cooling in a cost-benefit analysis can disclose counteracting measures that reduce the net benefit.
The study demonstrates that further investigation into cost-effective climate adaption is crucial to building future-proof environments.

The growing complexity of modern façade systems and the increasing use of combustible materials highlight a pressing need to evaluate not only fire resistance but also fire resilience in façade design. This study addresses critical gaps in façade fire resilience assessment, particularly the absence of methodologies that incorporate both damage progression and post-fire recovery potential. To fill this gap, the research formulates a central question: How can the fire resilience of façade systems be assessed to evaluate their ability to maintain structural integrity and recover functionality after fire exposure?
A two-phase methodology was adopted. First, a quantitative damage assessment was performed using a one-dimensional heat transfer simulation. This model, governed by the standard fire and implemented via the finite difference method, simulates temperature evolution in multi-layered façade assemblies. Damage states were classified based on critical temperature thresholds, enabling the computation of vulnerability scores over different fire durations. This method was selected due to its computational efficiency and its solid foundation in fire engineering literature, making it well-suited for early-stage design comparisons. In the second phase, resilience was evaluated through a qualitative expert survey focusing on repairability and recoverability, as the lack of empirical post-fire data necessitated expert-based evaluation. Experts assessed post-fire conditions of façade materials and components in terms of ease of repair, repair duration, cost, and likelihood of restoring performance.
The integration of these two methods provides a holistic framework for evaluating façade fire resilience by linking thermal vulnerability with practical recovery insights. The framework is further developing through a preparation phase, which also serves as its validation by comparison with existing research results. This study contributes a novel perspective to façade design, enabling stakeholders to identify fire-resilient systems that balance thermal performance, structural robustness, and post-fire recoverability.

This thesis investigates an innovative tensile-based prefabricated façade panel, with the aim of delivering a stiff, lightweight, thermally broken, and highly reconfigurable system within a thin profile. The proposed concept is evaluated through dynamic relaxation simulations, finite element analysis (FEA), and physical prototyping to reveal its structural behaviour and design characteristics.
Beyond assessing the initial concept, the study also explores and analyses alternative configurations, comparing them to conventional light gauge steel framing (LGSF) systems. Expert interviews were conducted to evaluate the façade’s feasibility, practical implications, and potential future applications based on industry insights.
The findings indicate that the tensile-based façade panel is unlikely to outperform or compete with established solutions in typical residential or office applications. Key limitations include insufficient stiffness, manufacturing and installation complexity, and higher maintenance requirements.
The research concludes by recommending further exploration into alternative applications that are complimentary to the panels structural characteristics, including integration with ETFE or other membrane-based panels, lightweight overcladding systems, closed cavity façades (CCF), and tent-like all-in-one modular structures.

As climate change increases the frequency and intensity of summer heat events, Dutch residential buildings face growing risks of overheating. In response, occupants are increasingly turning to energyintensive air conditioning, further exacerbating climate impacts. This thesis investigates the effectiveness of passive and low-energy cooling strategies in enhancing thermal comfort and heat resilience in existing Dutch dwellings under future summer climate conditions. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining dynamic thermal simulations in Honeybee with resident questionnaires and expert interviews, applied to three typical housing types: detached, terraced, and apartment buildings. The results show that the most effective strategies vary by room function. For living rooms, temperaturebased ventilation, cross-ventilation, existing lightweight construction, and the addition of ceiling fans and solar shading proved most effective. For bedrooms, night ventilation combined with renovated construction and the same additional measures offered the best performance. Ceiling fans alone consistently outperformed both solar shading and green roofs in reducing thermal discomfort. Interviews and survey responses further revealed that residents and professionals continue to prioritize winter comfort over summer comfort, and value affordability, low energy use, environmental impact, ease of installation, and minimal maintenance—factors not captured by thermal metrics alone. The findings suggest that, when occupancy hours are taken into account and strategies are applied in targeted combinations, passive and low-energy measures can significantly reduce overheating and dependence on air conditioning. When incorporated across multiple levels of the built environment, this could contribute to more sustainable and climate-resilient housing in the Netherlands. 

The climate crisis is widely regarded as one of the biggest challenges of our century, driving the European Union to adopt ambitious climate action policies targeting rapid transitions across all sectors, particularly resource-intensive ones like the building industry. The building sector accounts for 40% of Europe’s energy consumption and 36% of its greenhouse gas emissions, making it a critical sector for achieving the EU’s goal of net-zero emissions by 2050. Despite its potential for improvement, significant amounts of European buildings remain energy inefficient, and only 1% undergo renovations each year. These inefficient buildings consume over 270 kWh/m² annually, suggesting that effective retrofitting could significantly reduce energy use. Insulating external walls alone has the potential to achieve energy savings of up to 60%.

Historic buildings, however, present unique challenges due to the need to preserve their cultural, historical, and aesthetic significance. Internal insulation is often the only viable solution for such structures but brings with it complex hygrothermal risks. Insulating solid masonry walls internally reduces heat flow, lowers the wall’s temperature, and increases the likelihood of interstitial condensation and consequently frost damage, wood decay and mould growth. Moreover, the use of vapour-permeable, capillary-active insulation materials introduces additional complexities, as their ability to absorb and redistribute moisture can result in both benefits and risks depending on the interior and exterior boundary conditions.

The aim of this research is to gain insight into the most influential factors affecting the hygrothermal safety of embedded wooden beams in solid brick masonry with interior capillary active insulation. Through literature review, background information on the subject is provided. Creating an understanding of the hygrothermal changes to the solid brick masonry after the application of interior capillary active insulation and associated hygrothermal risks of the wall assembly, with regard to the biological decay of embedded wooden beams. To find the most influential factors on hygrothermal performance, methods to simulate this performance are assessed and compared and possible high influential material properties, such as temperature and moisture, further researched.

The influence of thermal conductivity, water vapour diffusion resistance and moisture retention of the insulation, as well as the water vapour diffusion resistance and moisture retention of brick on the hygrothermal performance is assessed with a Sobol sensitivity analysis. This sensitivity analysis indicates the most influential material properties, and is based on 1536 simulations using Delphin hygrothermal simulation software. Python scripting is used to create the simulation and material files, control the Delphin software and analyse and assess the generated results. To create a better understanding of these results and assess the hygrothermal safety, wood decay potential is calculated and visualised using the post processor of Delphin.

From this research, it can be concluded that the exterior boundary conditions, such as rain load, solar radiation and orientation, are more dominant on the hygrothermal performance of the geometry in comparison with the material properties. When solely analysing material properties, the sensitivity analysis concludes that the moisture retention of brick is the primary influence on hygrothermal performance. The moisture retention of insulation is of secondary importance within the research boundary conditions. Furthermore, the impact of capillary active insulation is studied by using wood decay assessments. Revealing positive contributes to the prevention of wood decay. However, incapable of reducing moisture content to levels that prevent wood decay completely.

With decision-making becoming increasingly data-driven in early design stages due to global environmental challenges, and qualitative metrics remaining crucial in facade design due to their huge architectural impact, performance-driven design exploration frameworks are emerging as powerful tools to explore vast design spaces based on geometry typology and approximated performance. However, those used in facade design based solely on Self-Organising Maps (SOM), face significant challenges in computational efficiency. While more advanced frameworks used in the AEC sector combining SOM and Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLP) address this, they still face limitations in prediction accuracy, convergence speed, interpretability, reliability, and usability, reducing their effectiveness in decision-making. This thesis aimed to overcome these limitations, by developing a novel framework integrating SOM and Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KAN), applied in the design process of an aluminium-based biocomposite curtain wall facade. The results demonstrate that substituting heavy performance simulations with fast approximations using KAN leads to significant enhancements in computational efficiency. In addition, comparative analysis revealed that KAN outperforms MLP in prediction accuracy on highly-complex performance metrics, with much faster convergence and smaller architectures. Furthermore, KAN proved to be faster and more intuitive to train, as well as more consistent in predictions. Moreover, KAN enhanced interpretability between geometry and performance, enabling designers to focus on relevant design variables and adjust them strategically toward optimal performance, providing an integrated solution with transparent decision-making and faster processing compared to traditional sensitivity analysis tools. Finally, a novel approach to design exploration has enabled the integration of less-geometry related design variables, enhancing optimisation capabilities, as well as proven to balance human-AI interaction more efficiently than traditional frameworks, making design exploration more interactive, thereby more effective and intuitive. Ultimately, the SOM-KAN framework has proven to advance the facade design process by facilitating more efficient decision-making in early design stages, leading to superior architectural and sustainable solutions.

This thesis investigates the performance of inkjet-printed electrochromic (EC) glass compared to traditional triple glazing with roller shades in an office setting in the Netherlands. The study aims to assess thermal and visual comfort, via a live experiment conducted in a controlled environment. Key performance indicators (KPIs) include thermal sensation & preference, solar heat perception & satisfaction, (day)light adequacy, colour rendering satisfaction, view clarity satisfaction, and glare perception. Results indicate that EC glass outperforms traditional glazing in maintaining thermal comfort, particularly in darker scenarios, although both glazing types keeping room temperatures within a comfortable range. Visual comfort results are mixed; EC glass provided better daylight sufficiency in low-light conditions, while traditional glazing offered better performance in bright conditions. User satisfaction regarding colour rendering and glare did not show significant differences between the two façade types. This study was limited to the winter period of the Dutch climate. Ideally, to obtain a complete picture of the performance between both facades, this experiment should be conducted again during the summer period or in a warmer climate.

The performance of a building envelope is crucial for minimizing operational carbon emissions and maintaining indoor comfort. Contemporary building envelopes, such as highly engineered glazed façades, achieve high performance levels but also add a significant amount of embodied carbon. For example, a 1mm reduction in glass thickness could save 7.7 kgCO2eq/m2. There is therefore an incentive to reduce the thickness of the glass panels, but the minimum thickness possible is often not governed by strength or manufacturing limits but rather by the deflection (serviceability) limits. Despite objective criteria guiding serviceability limits, occupant acceptance of deformation remains unexplored, leading to conservative designs. This research introduces a novel method for measuring occupant’s perception of glass deformations, aiming to establish acceptance thresholds comparable to objective criteria. An experimental campaign was conducted to assess volunteers' levels of perception and acceptance of various glass deformations. The glass was deformed using an electro-pneumatic system at levels corresponding to below, above, and at the current serviceability limit. The results demonstrate the feasibility of measuring human responses to deformations in the glazing and provide essential data for setting serviceability limits. The experiments indicate that, based on occupant feedback, the current serviceability limit of L/50 may be relaxed, thereby presenting opportunities for material efficiency, such as the adoption of thinner glass in facades. The methodology effectively captures human responses, revealing heightened perception of glazing movement at night and a higher acceptance during the day. Changes in reflection were the primary reason for the perception of movement, with lower acceptability at night. Overall, participants felt safe regardless of their prior knowledge on glass properties, and providing this information to participants did not improve acceptance, which was already sufficiently high. The findings from this research fill an important knowledge gap in understanding occupant acceptance of glass deformations, crucial for comprehensive user satisfaction assessments and evidence-based reductions in glazing thickness.

Building and facade design face the challenge of maximizing daylight penetration while mitigating discomfort glare and addressing additional indoor user requirements and energy loads. Daylight in buildings plays a crucial role in regulating human circadian rhythms and various aspects of psychological functioning, health, and well-being. This is especially relevant in work environments, where improved performance, concentration, alertness, and mood are linked to adequate daylight exposure. Given that people spend most of their time indoors, including in office settings, access to natural light is often limited or obstructed by conventional shading systems. As both daylight and views to the outside benefit worker performance and satisfaction, office building facades frequently feature large window-to-wall ratios to enhance daylight and views. However, this transparency can result in excessive brightness and daylight glare. Various adaptive facade systems have emerged to address these challenges, with different levels of automation and control implemented to optimize performance.
In this thesis, a novel dynamic facade technology, VideowindoW, is discussed and tested as a shading system through an experimental approach in a laboratory setting. This product creates natural patterns aimed at providing glare protection and good indoor environmental quality for occupants. Limited studies have explored the impact of facade patterns on glare perception, satisfaction, and preference, with findings indicating a human preference for natural or irregular geometric patterns related to biophilic theories over more regular and striped patterns. Additional natural elements, including daylight and natural views, significantly enhance the overall architectural experience.
The aim of this work is to present a novel experimental setup in an office setting for evaluating occupant perception under different patterns. The patterns studied include a natural pattern, a striped pattern, and a no-pattern condition. Occupant perception is assessed in terms of (i) glare perception; (ii) daylight satisfaction; (iii) color of daylight satisfaction; (iv) visual comfort; (v) satisfaction with the view out; (vi) acceptance of obstruction of the view out; (vii) pattern aesthetics; and (viii) sunlight pattern aesthetics. Experiments with human participants systematically captured their perceptions and preferences.

Urbanization and climate change have intensified urban heat island effects, significantly affecting outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) in cities. Traditional methods of assessing the influence of urban environments on OTC often rely heavily on computational simulations, neglecting the integration of user-centric data and comprehensive environmental monitoring. This research addresses the critical gap by employing a multi-domain, mixed-method approach to evaluate the influence of building facades on outdoor thermal comfort, specifically in the Acquabella district of Milan. To address the gap, this study suggests a structured workflow beginning with a participatory workshop and a long-term survey to gather demographic data and user perceptions, identifying areas of significant thermal discomfort. These insights inform the simulations conducted using ENVI-met software, which model the Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) across different facade geometries and material properties. Real-time validation is achieved through a thermal walk, which includes field measurements and on-site evaluations to capture situational thermal perceptions. The research findings underscore the substantial impact of facade materiality on thermal perception. The study also reveals that aesthetic preferences and psychological factors play a crucial role in thermal perception, highlighting the necessity of integrating these aspects into urban design strategies. These findings are synthesized into a decision matrix that guides the design of retrofit strategies. Proposed solutions focus on modifying facade materials, increasing vegetation, and optimizing the built environment based on user feedback. Simulations of these design proposals using ENVI-met demonstrate significant improvements in thermal comfort, validating the effectiveness of the proposed interventions. This thesis presents a comprehensive framework for assessing the multi-domain influence of facades on outdoor thermal comfort, advocating for the integration of user-centric data and participatory approaches in urban design. The methodology and findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, urban planners, and researchers aiming to enhance urban thermal environments and address the challenges posed by climate change and urbanization.

With the increasing number of disruptive events impacting the built environment, identifying and enhancing the resilience of building facades has become crucial. This study focuses on improving the resilience of building facades against seismic and thermal hazards using machine learning techniques. A comprehensive methodology is developed, integrating thermal and seismic resilience analyses within a unified framework. The study utilizes extensive simulations and machine learning models to predict resilience metrics, such as thermal autonomy and seismic drift angles, based on various building parameters. The approach enables architects and engineers to optimize building designs for enhanced resilience efficiently.
The research is specifically applied to low-cost housing in New Delhi, India, an area prone to both extreme weather and seismic activity. Detailed simulations are conducted using data on building materials, geometries, and environmental conditions. The results are used to develop predictive models that inform design improvements and resilience strategies. The study demonstrates significant improvements in the accuracy and efficiency of resilience assessments, providing actionable recommendations to enhance building performance. This integrated methodology offers substantial benefits for both academia and practice, paving the way for more resilient and sustainable building designs in vulnerable regions.
Keywords: Façade Resilience, Multi-hazard Approach, Unsupervised Machine learning, Supervised Machine learning, Prediction model, Quantitative Resilience Assessment, Resilience-based Design, Multi-attribute decision-making

The escalating challenges caused by the climate change, notably floods and heatwaves, highlights the urgent need for robust resilience strategies in infrastructure and urban ecosystems. this research identifies critical gaps in existing methodologies and tools for assessing resilience, particularly during extreme events. Key issues include the absence of specialized tool for facade resilience quantification, limited multi-hazard assessment methodologies and a scarcity of quantitative methods in existing literature. In order to fill these gaps, this study formulates a research question: How can we identify the optimal facade combination that is resilient against heatwaves and floods?

A quantitative approach is employed, integrating an interdisciplinary perspective that encompasses structural design, facade design, climate design and hazard engineering. The methodology involves an extensive literature review, computational simulations, machine learning models, sensitivity analysis and resilience matrix for quantification of flood and heatwaves resilient facade system.

This study fills crucial gaps by offering a framework to assess facade resilience against these hazards. It identifies influential facade parameters and primary hazard stressors, crucial for informed decision-making by designers and engineers. The study culminates in a resilience quantification for multi-hazard assessment, empowering stakeholders to design resilient facade systems tailored to specific environmental contexts. The research findings contribute to advancing knowledge in building facade resilience, offering practical guidance for enhancing resilience in the face of evolving environmental challenges.

The building sector is increasingly acknowledging the necessity to mitigate its environmental impact in response to the challenges posed by climate change. Adaptive facades specifically are used to develop a dynamic control of the envelope’s properties, modifying their behaviour in response to outdoor conditions and indoor stimuli. Thermochromic and photochromic technologies, also known as Passive Smart Windows (PSW) are passive solutions that aim to regulate solar gains through the integration of an Auto-Responsive (AR) layer, particularly for cooling purposes, to reduce energy consumption and minimize the operational impact of buildings.
Existing literature predominantly concentrates on the performance aspects of these technologies, mainly due to their early development stages. However, there remains a gap in assessing the overall environmental impact, both in terms of impact perspective, thus considering several possible effects
on the environment, and from a life cycle perspective, thus including both embodied and operational dimensions. The embodied impact, in particular, lacks comprehensive examination beyond considerations of Global Warming Potential (GWP). Furthermore, the dynamic landscape of materials and principles utilized in these technologies adds complexity to their evaluation.
This thesis project aims to bridge these gaps by establishing a comprehensive framework for evaluating the total impact of PSW, encompassing both embodied and operational stages. Through comparative analysis with alternative Dynamic Window Systems (DWS), comprising static windows paired with dynamic shading devices, the framework facilitates a thorough examination. Operational energy calculations are grounded in energy simulations of a standard office space with an exposed facade, while the description of the embodied stages gives an overview of the life cycle of PSW, with focus on different possibilities integrating the AR layer and their consequences.
The application of the framework in a case study reveals nuanced findings. While the GWP of PSW decreases of 1,1%, most of the other impact of PSW increase, including a growth of 0,1% of the Single Score. PSW has a lower impact compared to DWS due to the increased energy demand of the latter but, contrary to the initial expectations, the PSW does not consistently outperform static glazing due to conservative assumptions in energy simulation and a higher replacement rate, which significantly escalates embodied impact. Notably, challenges arise in defining materials for the AR layer, necessitating collaboration with manufacturers to improve data availability.
The study identifies replacement as a critical factor in determining overall impact, underscoring the importance of extending the lifespan of PSW or to consider a detachable layer to enhance its environmental sustainability. However, criticisms regarding the partial nature of the analysis emerge, particularly in neglecting user comfort and control over the facade, as well as the temporal flexibility of the technology. Future research directions should incorporate these aspects for a more comprehensive evaluation.
Ultimately, this thesis emphasizes the interdependency between the LCA approach, the energy simulation and the context of the PSW’s application. This highlights that the environmental impact assessment of such building elements can not leave the contextual application out of consideration in order to provide a sufficiently reliable result, thus limiting the use of this framework mainly to defined projects rather than to the estimation of generic impact for a PSW product.

In the wake of the climate crisis, the building industry faces a unique challenge - to strike a balance between global sustainability challenges and the high standards of human comfort. A building’s façade plays an important role in reducing operational carbon emissions in a building, while maintaining acceptable levels of indoor comfort. In doing so, contemporary façade solutions often lead to an increase in embodied carbon in a building. Further, strategies to reduce embodied carbon, such as use of recycled or reused glass fail to meet conventional standards. This thesis explores the potential of a material efficient approach in design of façade glazing by means of reduction in glass thickness.
Reduction of 1mm thickness of glass can save up to 3 kgCO2eq/m2 of façade area. However, reduction in glass thickness may lead to deformations in glazing well beyond serviceability limits. This may have a negative impact on glazing properties such as its mechanical performance, thermal performance, durability, optical performance, acoustic performance and overall occupant satisfaction. While effects of deformation on objective performance parameters can be calculated and mitigated, there has been no research on how acceptance of deformation in terms of occupant satisfaction can be measured. As a consequence, serviceability limits are mainly governed by objective criteria alone. Occupant acceptance towards deformation has always been assumed to be low and glass panes are designed to be more rigid than may be necessary. Without measurement of occupant acceptance thresholds of deformation it is not possible to perform a comprehensive assessment of limits on deformation, and the potential to reduce glass thickness in glazing.
A novel method has been designed in this thesis to determine occupant satisfaction towards level of deformation in glass; with the intention of arriving at acceptance thresholds comparable to those set by objective criteria. As the first step in research a state-of-the-art review on the subject of serviceability criteria and potential for material efficiency in glazing was conducted by means of a systematic literature review and a façade industry survey. Based on the findings from the review an experiment was designed and developed. The proposed method is designed to be conducted in an office environment or a laboratory with volunteers who are asked to indicate their level of satisfaction towards deformations in glass. The deformations in glass are created by varying air pressure inside the cavity of an insulated glazing unit (IGU) using an electro-pneumatic system designed for this experiment to replicate two common loading conditions related to serviceability – climate loading and wind loading. Preliminary tests were able to provide a sufficient proof of concept for the experimental setup.
Feasibility tests for the experimental setup were conducted wherein the mechanical behavior and optical behavior of glass under deformation was objectively measured. The deformation patterns in glass panes displayed geometrically nonlinear behavior in line with predictions of finite element analysis. It was also found that the static deformation (pillowing) does not have any perceivable impact on the view through the façade panel. However, deformation of glass is perceived through distortion of the reflected images, such as ceiling lights and reflecting objects. Further objective optical experiments must be conducted under dynamic loading conditions so as to compare these with results of subjective testing. Subjective testing of the experimental method with a few volunteers is required before conducting the final experiment.
A novel method was thus formulated for a human-centered appraisal of façade glazing deformation. A comprehensive understanding of impact of glazing deformation is necessary to explore the potential of material efficiency in façade glazing. The experimental setup was found to be versatile and scalable enough to conduct multi-objective experiments to assess the impact of deformations on mechanical behavior, thermal performance, acoustic performance and durability.

Our planet is currently facing significant challenges such as overpopulation, climate change, and resource depletion, leading to severe environmental degradation. The construction industry, in particular, has played a major role in aggravating these issues. The increase in carbon emissions has contributed to rising global temperatures, necessitating higher energy consumption in buildings to maintain thermal comfort during extreme heat conditions, which in turn further contributes to climate change. To break this cycle, designers and researchers have developed various passive strategies for buildings to reduce energy consumption. However, improper design and implementation of these strategies often compromise indoor comfort.

The building envelope, as the protective layer of a building, plays a critical role in maintaining indoor comfort. Therefore, it is essential to focus on facade strategies that not only reduce energy usage but also ensure user comfort. This thesis explores the development of passive facade strategies aimed at reducing energy consumption and maintaining thermal comfort during the cooling season. Through a systematic literature review, existing passive facade strategies employed to reduce cooling loads were examined, revealing a gap in considering occupant interaction.

The thesis investigates the potential of occupant-facade interaction as a passive strategy to reduce energy usage and maintain thermal comfort. Occupant behaviour models are identified and implemented to assess their impact on indoor comfort and air quality. The research seeks to provide insights into the benefits of occupant involvement and how it influences thermal comfort during the cooling season. The objective is to determine whether occupant behaviour alone can effectively maintain comfort and indoor air quality without relying on external mechanical systems.

By studying the relationship between occupant behaviour and the facade, this research aims to contribute valuable information on the role of occupants in reducing energy consumption and ensuring thermal comfort. The findings will shed light on the potential of occupant-facade interaction as an effective passive strategy in building design, with the ultimate goal of designing energy-efficient buildings that prioritize occupant comfort and well-being during the cooling season. Additionally, the findings of this research can serve as a foundation for the development of strategies that promote occupant interaction with the facade, leading to further reductions in energy consumption. By understanding the impact of occupant behaviour on thermal comfort and air quality, designers and building professionals can devise innovative approaches to optimize occupant-facade interaction, thereby minimizing the reliance on energy-intensive mechanical systems.

With the increasing number and diversity of disruptive events imposed on the built environment, it is becoming more important to identify a system's resilience. Quantifying resilience is crucial because it enables effective preparation, recovery, and adaptation to the uncertainties that lie ahead. This study focuses on the resilience of building facades, which play an integral role in a building's various functions, including environmental, structural, and operational performance. Facades contribute significantly to the total building damage, yet their resilience is not sufficiently addressed in current discourse. This research aims to bridge this research gap by addressing the question: How can the integrated resilience of a facade system to multiple hazards be identified? A methodology was developed with two objectives: 1) evaluating facade resilience, and 2) integrating this methodology into the facade design process.

The Resilience-based Facade Design Framework assesses the impact of multiple hazards on a building facade, taking into account its fragility. The framework provides a quantitative approach to decision-making regarding facades, both in the early design stage and in retrofitting. Users can input project location, building geometry, and existing facade specifications to create a facade package. This package is then assessed for resilience under different hazards, including seismic and heat hazards. The resilience performance, defined in terms of resilience loss and economic loss, is integrated into a multi-attribute decision-making tool. This tool allows users to select a facade package based on its integrated resilience performance value, or to configure a facade package based on individual enhancements to resilience attributes.

This research is about the problems related to the maintenance of living wall systems. The literature review and interviews with living wall manufacturers have shown that the irrigation system is the source of many problems. The irrigation system is an essential part of a living wall system. This ensures that the plants get water and are provided with sufficient nutrients. Nowadays there are advanced irrigation systems where you can set exactly how much water is supplied and what the total water use is. However, it has been found that this does not mean that the water actually reaches every plant. Which can lead to plants getting too much or too little water. In both cases this has a negative effect on the health of the plant and can lead to maintenance of the living wall. The problem lies in the method of assessing whether the water content and water distribution of the living wall is in order. At the moment there are no reliable assessment methods for this and these inspections are based on observations. For this purpose, an answer is given to the main question "What is the best strategy for monitoring the water distribution of the irrigation system on a living wall system that ultimately leads to more effective maintenance?". To answer this question, various monitoring methods have been tested. For the monitoring methods, an NDVI camera is used to measure plant quality. Furthermore, moisture sensors and a thermal camera are used to measure the water distribution and water content. In addition to this, the run-off water is measured. The results show that the reliability of the results strongly depends on various factors such as the presence of plants and climatic factors. This report describes the correct way to carry out these methods in order to obtain reliable results. A key factor here is that the monitoring methods must be applied together so that they compensate for each other's limitation.

Building envelopes are extremely significant in providing adequate indoor environment. They have tremendous impact on the energy requirements of buildings. The design methodology associated with building envelopes primarily addresses optimization for improving indoor environmental quality and energy efficiency of the buildings. This process does not account for the variance between occupant preferences and their importance on the various indoor environmental quality domains. The design of a building envelope has been found to significantly impact the well being of building occupants. This research proposes a user-centered design approach that evaluates the factors influencing occupant comfort and preferences. To achieve this, facade user-archetypes are employed to personalize building shading systems for users.

The multi-domain impact of building envelopes and external shades is studied to determine the environmental domains associated with shading systems. A classification scheme is developed for shading systems on the basis of their operation, placement, interaction and permeability. Next, shading system parameters are evaluated through geometry, materiality and control to understand which design parameters have the highest influence on occupant comfort and energy performance. To accurately capture the multi-domain influence of shading systems, the shading systems are simulated within a model space using the EnergyPlus and Radiance engines. The simulation results are stored in a data-set that cross evaluates shading system performance across 8 orientations and for occupants at specific spacing from the window.

A systematic literature review is conducted to identify factors impacting occupant preferences and current clustering methods for user archetypes. Based on this, an occupant preference framework is created and used to design a questionnaire. The questionnaire is distributed to office workers and individuals in different settings to evaluate their preferences. The responses received from the questionnaire are analysed using correlation and ANOVA test is used to evaluate which occupant characteristics show a higher correlation to certain preferences and environmental preferences. Based on the results, feature set iterations are developed which are processed further for dimensionality reduction. The feature set that captures the maximum occupant characteristics with a reliable explained variance is clustered using hierarchical clustering and K-means clustering algorithms.

The clusters resulting from the analysis form the archetypes, which are then utilized in design scenarios. The weights and preferences of the archetypes are incorporated to determine the most suitable shading system for the occupants. Scenarios are developed to use supervised / semi-supervised learning methods to predict the archetype of new users based on existing archetypes formed.

The findings demonstrate a high accuracy of the archetypes in recommending shading systems based on the assigned environmental importance and visual preferences of individual users. The research highlights that each user has unique preferences, which can lead to different design recommendations based on their responses. Furthermore, the research showcases the practical implementation of archetypes in designing spaces and emphasizes their potential application in future facade design and control systems.

Climate extremes are becoming increasingly frequent and intense worldwide, with greater pressure on ecosystems, the built environment, and humankind. Heat waves, in particular, are overheating indoor spaces and thermal comfort as one of the major comfort requirements of buildings is disrupted or, in the most extreme situations, lost. In extreme cases, this can lead to life-threatening circumstances and explains the high morbidity and mortality during past heat wave events. It is crucial to urgently develop a more climate-resilient built environment, that can effectively respond to the future climate hazard of heat waves. Hereby, the building envelope has a key role to mitigate the impact of the exterior environment on the occupants’ indoor comfort. Accordingly, exploring possibilities of façade design for “future-proof” buildings is important to reduce health risks and improve the daily quality of life. However, the lack of comprehensive research on assessment methods for evaluating the influence of façade design on building thermal resilience proves the current challenges of implementing the concept of “resilience” in a practical manner.
This research aims to improve the design process of retrofit options, increasing thermal indoor comfort during heat waves, and enhancing long-term building thermal resilience. It includes the development of resilience indices, based on the assessing different stages of thermal resilience during extreme heat periods. By conducting a systematic literature review focusing on thermal resilience terminology and corresponding assessment methods, the study identifies limitations and gaps in current research. A novel method is proposed, which incorporates future climate scenarios and multiple resilience indicators. While most existing research solely relies on the measurement of a single indicator to measure thermal resilience, this thesis demonstrates the importance of combining multiple resilience indicators to comprehensively assess the influence of façades on building thermal resilience. The proposed framework aims to be universally applicable and adjustable, while assessing the short- and long-term impacts of retrofit interventions on the performance of the façade. The resulting index visualizes how various façade retrofit variables can influence thermal resilience at the building level, which provides a deeper understanding of dependencies and thus enhances improved decision-making during the development of façade retrofits.