Curtain-wall systems have become increasingly common in present-day architecture.
They can be produced with high-efficiency qualities selected by the architect or façade
engineer, the most essential of which are excellent strength-to-weight ratio, functionality
requirements, component material recyclability, transparency, and comprehensive
aesthetic attributes.(Baniotopoulos et al., 2016) Over the last decade, much research has
been conducted to produce performance-based earthquake resilient structures and
façades. This research aims to explore the integration of timber and aluminium suspended
façade systems within environments characterized by these extreme conditions. On
the first part of the research thesis, the focus will be on developing a comprehensive
understanding of the performance of this façade system under wind, earthquake forces and
implementing automation techniques to streamline the calculations by creating a smart
grid in Grassshopper and Python. Additionally, once structural integrity has been met, an
optimal structural design of the bracket using steel and glass as a material is presented by
using advanced finite-element analysis schemes and structural design criteria.

The use of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer as a building material in structures or structural components is on the rise. Standards such as CUR96, DNV and JRC provide a basis of design with the material. However, there is a lack of confidence in the design phase with structures made of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer, resulting in the use of large safety factors causing the components to be bloated in size. At the time of writing this report, the technical committee, CEN/TC 250 (responsible for developing structural Eurocodes), establishes a technical design specification for Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) structures. This technical specification describes a simplified and linear criterion to determine the capacity of a GFPR Laminate, in addition to being open for the use of Progressive Failure Analysis (PFA). However, the simplified and linear criterion is overly conservative, whereas there is a lack of faith in the use of the PFA considering the failure theories and degradation models that are currently in use. This report discusses the PFA, a non-linear, 5-step, advanced 2D analysis model, that can predict the static strength of in-plane stress dominated Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer laminate, with an arbitrary lay-up composition, based on existing knowledge and experiments, including the damage development under multi-axial stress states and stress redistribution. The research is limited to in-plane behavior, under tensile and compressive stresses. The static material response is characterized on a unidirectional ply level based on principal directions and based on experimental results obtained from the OptiDat program. The response predicted by the PFA for both tension and compression was in reasonable agreement with the experimental results. However, depending on the failure theory and degradation model used, there is potential for optimistic predictions of the laminate stress capacity. For future work, it is recommended to continue the research on a larger variety of laminate lay-ups and include more failure theories and degradation models.

For the use of screening potential glassmaking recipes the seeding method has been applied to a Molecular Dynamics simulated CaO-SiO₂ system in order to attain the parameters for the Classical Nucleation Theory and construct a Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagram. Using this TTT diagram, the non-crystallisation temperature and the critical cooling rate of the material was determined, two quantities important for the prevention of crystallisation during the glassmaking process. The implementation of the seeding method on the CaO-SiO₂ system involved creating a novel local bond order based detection method for distinguishing the crystalline structure of Wollastonite-1A from the glass melt. Regrettably this method had less than desirable precision which resulted in results for the nucleation rate that can only be used qualitatively. In contrast the results for the crystalline growth rate can be used quantitatively, while the resulting TTT diagram again can only be used qualitatively.

Glass is gaining more and more popularity as a structural material and has become a big share of the building industry. Unfortunately, the building industry is the largest polluter in terms of industrial waste and is responsible for 40% of Europe’s energy demand (CIB, 1999), and glass is also playing a significant role in this number. One strategy to reduce the amount of pollution from a product or industry is by making it circular (PBL, 2019). Meaning the amount of waste is minimized and the energy needed to produce new material is also decreased. In the Netherlands, buildings have to be completely circular from
2050 (Rijksoverheid, 2016). In order for glass to contribute to this goal, elements have to be able to be reused or recycled, taking demountability into account during the design of a structure.
One way of creating such a demountable joint, is by making use of portal frames, which require a rigid connection between the columns and beams. Currently, this connection is designed using either mechanical connections or adhesives. Rigid mechanical connections are visually not aesthetically pleasing and cause impurities right at the points where stresses are highest. This makes the joint more sensitive to failure. Rigid adhesive connections are very prone to execution and design errors, and are uncertain regarding their long-term strength. Currently, there is no efficient way to properly remove adhesives, making them non-demountable joints. This research will therefore design a demountable and rigid joint using contact pressure, taking inspiration from traditional Japanese joinery. To develop this joint, first, theory is studied, followed by the design and lastly by experimental testing.

From literature, the Kanawa and Gooseneck joints are selected, because they have the capacity to take up both shear and a bending moment. These joints are then further optimized to determine the optimal geometry for a rigid glass joint. This means a geometry that minimizes tensile stresses in the glass, decreasing the chance an existing flaw will tear and cause the material to fail. This optimization is done using analytical and numerical analyses, followed by full-scale experiments. To determine the optimal force transfer the geometries were first schematized, and the relevant parameters were determined
for later variation. From hand calculations, it follows that the optimal geometry finds a balance between the stresses resulting from normal force and the stresses resulting from the eccentricity of the internal line of force.

Using a parametric Grasshopper model, the geometries are further optimized by varying dimensions and curvature. Several designs are imported into DIANA FEA and Abaqus to acquire numerical values for the expected stresses of these set parameters. The models are set up as two 2D glass panes with a polymer interlayer in between them. In DIANA FEA a lot of difficulties arose with the combination of complex geometry and multiple contact surfaces. Therefore all designs were mitigated to Abaqus, because this software is more suitable for complex contact surfaces. Comparing the heavily simplified hand
calculations to the FEA, there was a constant increase of peak stresses with a factor of 4.

The Gooseneck design was manufactured using a CNC milling machine and afterwards, its edge was polished, resulting in optimal edge quality. Due to the nature of the geometry, the Kanawa design had to be manufactured using a waterjet. There was a large difference between the accuracy of the two production methods, resulting in the Kanawa joint having a lot more space between the glass plates. This strongly influences the placement of the interlayer materials, but also the stiffness of the joint during the experiments.

Before these models could be validated using experiments, a suitable interlayer to place between the edges of the glass panes was researched. POM, PVC, Surlyn, PA6 and PU85 are deemed suitable and are examined. Eventually, only PU85 could be fitted between the glass panes, which seemed to have the least favourable mechanical properties. The angle of the geometry was too small for most materials to bend them into, even after heating the plastics. The other issue lay with the tight tolerances of the polished glass panes. These had to be additionally polished by hand and the PU85 was treated with
silicone spray, in order for the whole joint to fit. The disadvantage was that this manual polishing damaged the edge quality, increasing the probability of failure at a lower strength.

Experiments were then conducted to validate earlier analytical and numerical calculations, using full-scale single-pane annealed glass. The joints were tested in pure tension and a bending moment, using polarizing filters to visualize the stress trajectories. For the Gooseneck model, the stress trajectories and expected stiffness corresponded well with the models. The samples failed at an average force of 6.0 kN. The model predicted peak stresses of 300 N/mm2 and stiffness of 2.8 N/m at this point, the experiments displayed a stiffness of 3.0 N/m. This means the model turned out to be 5.7% less stiff than the
experiments.

The stress trajectories coincided less clearly with the model for the Kanawa tension model. The samples failed at an average force of 4.1 kN. The expected peak stresses at this point were 150 N/mm2 and the stiffness 0.73 N/m based on the model. The experiments showed a stiffness of 1.1 N/m. The model underestimates the stiffness of the experiments by 33%.

Interestingly, because the tolerances in the Kanawa joint were larger, there was more movement possible in this joint. This influenced the force transfer and therefore resulted in different peak stresses than expected. The Gooseneck model turned out to be almost 3 times as stiff as the Kanawa model. This has two likely reasons. First of all, the geometry of the Kanawa joint is not designed to take up pure tension in the direction that it was tested. Therefore, the geometry itself was a lot less stiff than that of the Gooseneck joint. Secondly, the tolerances were of large influence. Because the Kanawa samples were produced using a waterjet, with quite large tolerances, there was a lot of movement possible in the joint. This meant little force was necessary to displace the joint, resulting in a lower stiffness.

The Kanawa design was tested under a bending moment, because the force transfer is very different compared to pure tension for this design. The full beam had dimensions of 2400mmx 400mmx 10 mm. Locations of peak stresses were similar to the models. The samples failed at an average of 4.0 kN, which corresponds with a moment of 1.1 kNm. The force-displacement graph of the experiments was not linear, but showed varying stiffness with plateaus where the stiffness was around 0. Most likely, this was caused by a combination of the plastic deformation of the PU85 and movement and/or sliding in the
machine itself. It was attempted to calibrate the model to the experiments, by increasing the stiffness of the interlayer. This did not result in sufficient stiffness, which implies the stiffness originates from another element in the setup. The rotational stiffness was 611 kNm/rad, which is 9.1% of the stiffness compared to a solid beam of the same dimensions.

This means the designed joint is not fully rigid, but this exploratory study shows there is great potential for such a system. Further optimizing the geometry and finding a more suitable interlayer could result in a rigid and demountable glass joint, as part of a portal frame.

Modern scientific research is highly specialised and concentrated on specific aspects of the scientist’s scientific field. However, when complex challenges arise, such as the sustainable energy transition, strong collaboration between scientific fields is required. Unfortunately, in many cases, these fields do not overlap, which causes communication and collaboration problems. As a result, research development is inefficient, and results are inconsistent. As a result, there is a schism between different scientific fields as well as between policymakers. Finally, this leads to less sustainable development.

The connection between two academic worlds, the built environment and materials science and engineering, is the focus of this double master’s thesis, allowing for the evaluation of a highly scientific technology that is little understood by professionals in the built environment, namely nuclear reactor technology. This is achieved by combining traditional research topics of both fields and creating an extensive research framework that is able to evaluate nuclear technology in both its technical and social implications. Part I of this research thesis goes into great detail about sector coupling.

Continued humanitarian crises have caused the amount of forcibly displaced people to increase rapidly in recent years, creating an urgent need for constructing adequate sheltering to house the displaced. Governments and international organizations attempt to accommodate the growing demands by subsidizing and mass producing temporary transitional shelters that do not always meet all the emerging needs of refugee families.

Many of these settlements are planned with a temporary use in mind, however, more often than not, they end up growing and turning into more permanent parts of cities themselves. In the case of Syrian refugees, several camps were set up in Jordan as an emergency response to accommodate the displaced families, namely the Zaatari camp in 2012 and the Azraq camp in 2014, with Zaatari camp being the largest Syrian refugee camp globally. These camps have now existed for nearly a decade, which collides with the original intentions of them being temporary, and are gradually becoming more permanent. When refugees first arrive they are in need of immediate sheltering and assistance, as time goes by their needs change and evolve in order to adapt to a more long-term setting. At the current rate, refugees are occupying their substandard shelters beyond the recommended lifespan resulting in housing that is largely inadequate (3RP, 2021).

Due to the rigid nature of the shelters provided to refugees, some families in the Zaatari camp, for example, have been rearranging the units provided to them in order to accommodate their specific spatial needs. These self-made rearrangements are clearly shown to have evolved over time and are becoming more intricate, showing a need for adapting and evolving the one-size-fits-all structures provided by international agencies into more customized solutions corresponding to individual family needs.

Additive Manufacturing in construction is an emergent technology that has garnered the attention of many researchers and developers recently, with new developments being constantly made in the field of 3D printing buildings and building components. Researchers argue that 3D printing as a construction technique can be a valid alternative for overcoming the limits and shortcomings of typical construction methods of refugee shelters being used currently, and can fulfill the requirements of adequate housing for refugees.

Earth presents itself as a construction material with various functional and environmental benefits for the construction of shelters. Moreover, earth has been widely used in buildings for thousands of years around the world and has demonstrated its ability to stand the test of time. Buildings made using earth are reusable, recyclable, and inherently biodegradable allowing vegetation to grow back into them after use leaving no waste behind (Rael, 2009). Furthermore, earth is a material that is readily available on-site in many locations needing minimal transport compared to other materials, which in combination with its other properties enables building structures with very little embodied energy (Volhard, 2016).

Mass customization is inherent to the process of additive manufacturing where robots can produce customized designs in an iterative process and no two models have to be alike, which in combination with using earth found on-site as a medium for printing, could make it a viable approach to constructing shelters that would meet individual refugee family needs. This research aims to investigate the possibilities of doing so through developing a mass-customization design tool for 3d printing refugee shelters using earth.

Many important life cycle assessment elements are left out of current energy energy transition evaluation methods, making it impossible to conduct a neutral and long-term assessment of the highly complicated energy transition. Consequently, chosen strategies cannot truly ensure long-term sustainable development due to the emergence of new challenges and bottlenecks. As a result, the primary goal of this master’s thesis is to investigate an alternative and extended assessment method capable of re-evaluating the current energy strategy proposition, as well as its primary systems and other energy technologies.
This study focuses on the implementation of nuclear energy in densely populated urban areas, as this technology has been deemed unsustainable by many previous evaluation methods. Nonetheless, it is regarded as an interesting technology due to its numerous potential benefits and relatively high energy density. The Netherlands currently has three designated nuclear energy reactor sites, one of which is in the highly developed Rotterdam-The Hague metropolitan area (MRDH). This region is known for its limited land availability and flexibility, which makes the energy transition even more difficult. As a result, the area has been chosen as the thesis’ primary research location. A well-founded comparison between various technologies deemed sustainable can be made by re-evaluating the proposed regional energy transition (RES). Both large-scale system transitions and individual technology studies can benefit from this approach.

The study focuses on determining the challenges, bottlenecks, and benefits of the energy transition. Several transition strategies, including the current proposal and various nuclear energy scenarios, are investigated to evaluate these key strategy parameters. A computational system analysis is performed per strategy to analyse the effects of a given energy system. Several important uncertainty factors that influence the outcome of energy systems, such as climate change and consumption behaviour trends, have been added to the python-based simulation. This research method enables a fair comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of various energy generation strategies and techniques. Finally, nuclear energy can be re-evaluated in a specific region.

The implementation of nuclear energy sources in the region is beneficial in several stages of the energy transition period, according to the results of dynamic energy system simulation and evaluation. Both strong and light nuclear implementation in the region are viewed as more sustainable than the current transition strategy. The technology’s high energy density allows for significant reductions in low energy dense renewable sources, significantly reducing the required land for energy applications. Furthermore, the technology reduces transitional investment costs, O&M costs, and, as a result, energy prices. Furthermore, because of its low potential for new bottlenecks and challenges, energy affordability can be maintained after 2050, whereas renewable-focused strategies

Cast glass has great application potential in the architectural realm, yet, despite its possibilities and attractiveness, designers, engineers and developers are, from an early design stage, hesitant to employ it; the limited available and craft-based manufacturing facilities, the questionable quality of the product, the missing engineering data and quality control processes and the uncertainties linked with the structural application of cast glass, lead to discouraging high cost/ high risk solutions. Within the listed challenges and uncertainties, perhaps the most striking is our inability to answer the most obvious question: what is the strength of cast glass? A simple answer to this question does not exist, as the mechanical properties of cast glass vary from product to product, and are directly influenced by the employed chemical composition, thermal history, and casting process. Adding to this complexity, further questions over the mechanical properties and quality arise, once waste (contaminated) glass cullet and lower processing temperatures are used, in the efforts of reducing the environmental impact of cast glass components.

Focusing on this knowledge gap, the aim of this work is to develop an understanding of the effect of the casting parameters on the meso-level structure of cast glass, and thereupon of the relationship between this meso-level structure and the strength, stiffness and fracture resistance of cast glass components. Towards this aim, the dissertation adopts an experimental approach based on physical prototyping by kiln-casting, and destructive and non-destructive testing. The experimental work shows that by kiln-casting, a larger variety of chemical compositions can be cast, even at relatively low processing temperatures. As a consequence, a broad range of mechanical properties arises, especially when waste cullet is employed. Based on the casting parameters, combinations of different defects, grouped in meso-level structures, are commonly found in cast glass, yet these can often be tolerable when situated in the glass bulk. The dissertation highlights the potential of recycling-by-casting of currently challenging to recycle glass waste into reliable and aesthetically unique structural components, and the advantages of engineering composite cast glasses. It also underlines the need for manufacturing guidelines, test data, product certifications and quality control protocols, for the successful implementation of cast glass in the built environment.

This report encompasses a graduation project submitted to fulfil the requirements for the title of Master of Science at the Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology. This research was conducted to find an alternative use for waste plastic as building components, specifically for the residents of an IDP camp within the federal capital territory of Nigeria, Abuja. Shelter is a fundamental human right, and everyone deserves to have a home that gives them safety and comfort. Humans have created a consumption-driven system that widens the divide between very low-income earners and the rest of society. Thus, the housing systems used in these camps are of the lowest quality. Another problem facing the country is plastic waste. Plastic waste is a global problem that is particularly evident within Nigeria. Without a proper large scale waste management system, the plastic ends up in water bodies or landfills and contributes to environmental degradation. Therefore, strategies for recycling plastic effectively and efficiently need to be developed. This research aims to provide a possible solution for both issues. Although the materials used for the housing are of low quality, the residents themselves are pretty resourceful in terms of adapting their resources to suit their needs, efficiency of building techniques and spatial arrangements. Therefore, they serve as an essential knowledge source to derive recycling methodologies for sustainable building. A standardized system for building components from plastic waste is designed and developed within this research. These building components require low-income technology for production, and the camp residents could use them to generate income for the IDP camps and low-income earners. The findings within this report will be based on literature research, testing and on-site analysis of an IDP in Abuja and with a specific focus on the Kuchingoro IDP camp in Abuja, Nigeria .

The ambition of the Netherlands is to have a fully circular economy by 2050.
One of the steps to achieve this ambition is that in 2030 the tenders should have
circular ambitions at all governmental levels. However, at the moment, there are
insufficient tools for the municipality to make the practical implications of these
circular ambitions explicit. In a studied case-project in Reigersbos (Amsterdam),
where circular facades are being applied, a selection procedure has taken place
to unify different parties that are willing and able to enhance the circularity of
the project. Such a tender process is complex and time-consuming. A tool that
streamlines circular requirements can help the selection procedure for the parties involved early in the process and can actively keep track of realisation of
the set requirements during the process. Therefore, the thesis aims to develop a
circular tendering tool that actively helps the municipality and project developer
set circular ambitions and criteria for an arbitrary project location. The tool’s
concept is to categorize and assess the individual benefits of the circular measures in the chosen products, phases and parties, based on the principle of the circular economy. By utilizing this tool, it becomes possible to compare and select a facade system for the project. Furthermore, it also keeps track of the process by monitoring the set goals during the project for necessary adjustments and allows evaluating of the goals in the end.

The building industry is responsible for 36% of global final energy use (Global Alliance for Building and Construction, 2018), 39% of CO2 Emissions (Global Alliance for Building and Construction, 2017) and 50% of global waste in just cities (Ellen Macarthur Foundation, 2017). This is mainly due to the linear economy model which is still the dominant model nowadays. This model has been proven to be unsustainable, and it has put an enormous stress in the environment. For this reason, different approaches need to be integrated into the building industry. Designing with the aid of an environmental impact assessment framework is one approach to consider the degradation to the environment, product of a building design. By quantifying the amount of embodied energy and carbon footprint related to a desired acoustic and thermal insulation in a building, designers and engineers can take eco-informed decisions, which not only bring ecological benefits, but also material savings.

The focus of this thesis is on the facade level, which belongs to the ‘‘skin’’ of the building according to Brand (1994). According to Brand’s model this layer has an average lifespan of 20 years, meaning that a different approach on the facade level is required in order to reduce the environmental impact during its technical life-span, which is the end goal of the thesis. In order to reach the aforementioned objective, this thesis explores the relevant literature around facades, materials and the environment. Additionally, the relationship between the environment and the built environment is explored, as well as the building industry in the Netherlands with the aim of identifying the most used facade systems. Further study is conveyed for the development of a comparison and selection tool to identify the potentials and weaknesses of the different systems in order to design an environmentally friendly facade.

When designing for structural performance, the geometry of the load-bearing elements is crucial for achieving the required stability. This is even more important in structural forms, such as shells and arches that are predominantly designed by their structural requirements. However, the typical design process starts with the design by the architect, and the subsequent analysis and development by the structural engineer, resulting in inefficiencies, not only in the process but also in the sub-optimal result, as the more developed a project, is, the least effective and more costly it is to optimize. Therefore, this report outlines the development of an automated pipeline that integrates the whole lifecycle of a structure, from conception to end-of-life. The focus is on developing an integrated workflow for designing and fabricating a structurally optimized shell using computational methods for form-finding, structural and lifecycle analysis, as well as fabrication, with the end goal of facilitating an automated additive manufacturing production. The structure should be able to withstand applied wind and snow loads using construction materials that are strong in compression, such as earth as a load-bearing material. The design should also be adaptable, within the limits of the material strength or the spatial constraints of the system. In the beginning, the topic is introduced and the research framework is defined. The relevant laboratory and numerical tests are mentioned. Next, literature research is conducted in the relevant fields. More specifically, the research are avenues are divided into form-finding shell structures utilizing computational tools, in earth as a construction material and in additive manufacturing in construction, as well as context. Then, a research by design method is adopted in two directions; a physical set-up and workflow for robotic additive manufacturing with earth is developed, as well as an optimal mixture that makes the most of the capabilities of the developed set-up. Next, a computational form-finding and digital fabrication process that are informed by the developed material and physical setup are defined. The generated form will be evaluated with finite element analysis (FEA) software. The algorithm integrates stress line additive manufacturing principles to direct load paths. The resulting forms are compared with corresponding non form-found and form-found shells in terms of material reduction, as well as with standard construction for environmental impact. This project contributes towards the establishments of an optimized scientific workflow bridging the gaps between design and manufacturing, as well as the development of standards for assessing the safety and environmental advantage of 3D printed structures.

For in-­situ resource utilisation start-up Maana Electric, an investigation was undertaken to determine whether a cover glass for solar panels can be produced using only desert sand as the raw material. During this investigation, the composition of desert sand, melt formation, processing temperatures, and mechanical and optical properties were considered. The composition of 18 desert sands was analysed by means of X­ray fluorescence and estimations of mineralogical composition were made, after which an attempt was made to melt the unmodified sand samples in a microwave furnace built for the purpose. Melt formation was further observed by melting binary combinations of store bought minerals that were found in the desert sands. The composition data and modelling of temperature-viscosity curves were employed to explore lowering the practical melting of the sand point by modification of the composition through benificiation. `Synthetic benificiated desert sand' was produced and melted based on the results. Glass samples produced were characterized using X­ray fluorescence, visual inspection, optical spectrometry, and fracture mirror analysis. It was found that about half of the desert sand samples assessed contain over 90 wt% silica, making it less feasible for use as raw material for glass due to high melting temperatures and/or large waste streams from benificiation, while sands containing larger fractions of carbonates and/or feldspars will form a melt at less than 1650 degrees Celsius if the SiO2 content is less than 55 wt%. Transmission of 85 % of ~550 nm wavelength light was shown to be possible for desert sand glass of 3 mm thickness if Fe2O3 content is lower than 0.1 wt%, while for the same transmission in the complete effective spectrum of silicon based solar cells the iron content needs to be lowered further. Known absorbing species such as Cr2O3, NiO and CuO were detected in desert sand in trace amounts, but were not present in the synthetic mixtures, the influence of these contaminants on transmission requires further research. Mechanical analysis was inconclusive due to a limited number and low quality of the samples produced, but a review of the literature implies that a Young's modulus of >70 GPa and flexural strength of >45 MPa are attainable in a glass produced from desert sand components.

Windows are important elements in a building. They protect the interior from the exterior environment regarding weather conditions, noise, security and so on. While they also, in contrast to walls and floors, connect the two, creating links and providing rooms with daylight, fresh air and views in and out of the building. The most governing element of the window is the insulated glazing unit (IGU). There are many developments concerning coatings to add functions to the glass ,such as solar control or self-cleaning windows but they contain critical materials such as cobalt, copper and titaninum. Added elements such as coatings, foils for laminated glass and the sealant prohibit the IGU from being recyclable, as the prevailing glass industry requires high quality and clean ingredients only. This makes the IGU a finite, single life product resulting in almost 125.000 tonnes of post-consumer glass waste each year in the Netherlands. The IGU works optimally as an insulating element as long as there is dry (argon) gas inside the glazing panes. However, the life span of current IGUs is just around 15-20 years and is dependent on the butyl seal which is just 1% of the costs and 0.1% of the weight. During its life span the seal starts failing by allowing water molecules inside the cavity. The panel as a result starts building up water vapor and the coating inside will start to corrode, the glass shows fogging and the thermal performance drops down due to outgassing of the panel. In the current design of the IGU no refurbishment is possible, meaning that the glass panes and the spacer will not be re-used, but instead end up as landfill while these materials exceed the life span of the sealant by a large margin (Veer,2016). This thesis therefore focusses on the possibility of remanufacturing the IGU. The re-designed edge seal system for the IGU makes it easy to remanufacture the IGU on-site. The design utilises a detachable butyl seal that functions as a dry gas and vapor barrier and a hollows section that assures the tightness of the seal. This idea shows the possibility to replace the weakest part of the whole glazing panel every ten years so that the glazing panes which have high stored embodied energy and the spacer bar, which is currently approaching the theoretical value in terms of energy efficiency, both can have a life span of more than 100 years. The interlocking design of the spacer bar and butyl sealant is a result of a form finding process. A fiberglass hollow section can be slid into the butyl profile to assure the load is transfered to the window system. Furthermore, a check valve type is chosen to fill the cavity again with Argon gas with every remanufacturing cycle.

The investigation of new glass compositions is crucial to expand the possible applications of glass, from the typical applications for building engineering, in the form of cast blocks or floated glass, to more advanced technologies, such as 3D-printed glass or glass to metal connections. Despite the intense research activity and new glass compositions being investigated every day, there has been little innovation or evolution in the composition of architectural glass. This is partially explained by the fact that a substantial part of glass research is not relevant to practical large-scale applications. This thesis is more concerned about the development of compositions with optimized properties than the studies of the short- and intermediate-range structure of a theoretical glass that would hardly find a practical application. Thus, these compositions are inexpensive and appropriate to mass production, utilizing conventional melting techniques. Since the high melting temperatures and the brittleness are two important drawbacks of glass, this work aims to improve both properties. The modification of the properties is achieved via changes in the composition of the glass, using compounds such as phosphorus pentoxide, aluminium oxide and boron oxide. Then, the choice of different glass formers and modifiers contributes to the development of compositions with lower melting and glass transition temperatures. The reduction of the melting temperature allows a saving of energy during the manufacturing and recycling processes. The structures of the glasses differ from the standard soda-lime and borosilicate glasses, leading to a different mechanical behaviour. For instance, an anisotropic structure, which could exhibit a better mechanical performance than standard glasses. Furthermore, these new compositions incorporate up to 35% of slag and fly ash in their formulas. The valorization of these by-products that would otherwise have been previously discarded reduces costs and gas emission. The developed compositions have high water resistance, amorphous structure proved by x-ray diffraction and indentation toughness comparable to a standard soda-lime glass. The coloration of the samples varies depending on the composition and, for the samples containing slag, depending on the melting temperature. In this case, melting at higher temperatures allows the production of colorless glass. The color of the glasses is mainly influenced by the presence of sulfur and iron oxide. In conclusion, this thesis describes the development of new glass compositions containing fly ash and slag. The focus of the work is on the improvement of the properties and a comparison of performance of these new compositions with the glasses currently used in building engineering. The promising results point to the possibility of expansion of the current applications of glass.

The research is focused on investigating regolith as a building material, while implementing the sustainable approach in terms of energy efficiency and material usage, during production process and construction. The context is located within the first manned missions to Mars, and the requirements, towards testing methods allowing for independence from Earth, are implemented.
The studied production process is using compression and thermal treatment as the main processes.The main final product of the research is a novel approach towards the fabrication of martian regolith. The composition of the material is changed in different ways in order to minimize the energy input and required payload for the production process. The compositions with an additional amount of minerals with lower melting point (plagioclase, ferric sulfate), the ones with smaller particle size distribution (amorphous phase elements) or with additional sulfur powder (which could be brought from Earth or extracted in situ in the future) were studied with mechanical tests and microscopic analysis.
The research proved that the change in composition can have a significant impact on the building material characteristics and could be used to optimize the production process. The compressive strength of the produced specimens was ranging between 0,45 – 4,00 MPa.
The structure built in situ was assumed to be external shell structure protecting inflatable, light habitable modules. The outer shell was analysed in terms of resistance towards wind load, gravity and micrometeorites impacts. The construction method and structure type proposed according to the results from experimental research on the material was based on adobe buildings on Earth. The compressive-only structures built with an interlocking system, which protect the crew against wind, radiation and micrometeorites impacts, were studied and designed.

While the world is advancing with taller structures using engineered wood, little importance is being given to natural wood, which is abundantly available in most regions of the world. The lack of technological research using this material in its natural state has caused a drawback in its usage. Also, the dependence on engineered wood for modern construction has only increased the transportation of such materials from the developed regions or ‘technologically advanced’ regions of the world to the developing areas, increasing the carbon footprint.
The grassroot idea of this research was to develop a construction technology for a multi-storey building using the locally available natural timber that satisfies the contemporary needs of the housing shortage in the urban context and encode the design logic of this research in a digital tool for ease of use by the local designers. The urban city of Shillong, located in the north-east state of Meghalaya in India, was selected as the context for this research. The region has a history of construction with natural timber, however in contemporary scenario the construction is common with concrete and steel, which poses a question on sustainability. The region also provides a challenge with respect to the seismic hazard as it is located in the Himalayan seismic belt. Given these constraints, along with the availability of local resources like– money, labor, space and technical data, the boundary conditions for this research were formulated. Inferences were drawn from the literature research for understanding timber as a building material, architectural principles of seismic design and case studies of Traditional Japanese timber construction and contemporary innovations in tall timber structures which played a vital role in development of the design.
This research focuses on the structural possibilities of constructing a six-storey building using naturally available timber. Given the academic time-frame, the column-primary beam joinery was developed, while others were conceptualized based on the inferences drawn from its design process. The global structural system was validated using the finite element analysis under the provisions of the National Building Codes of India. Being first of its kind in the context, this research successfully proves the structural possibilities of the proposed multi-storey natural timber structure. Also, a digital tool was created, which encodes the logic of the whole design process, which could be used by the local designers of the region to visualize the structural system at an early design phase. This would ease the usage of this technology in the region.
This research transcends beyond the current innovations in the field of timber construction. On using natural timber for construction, a complete manufacturing line of the engineered wood is eliminated, thus, reducing the environmental impact. It should be mentioned that the structural strengths of the natural timber cannot be matched to that of engineered timber or steel. However, the global concerns of environmental impact have forced us to rethink the way we are building today; ideate and share innovation in order to take a step forward to a sustainable future.

Architecture has been using materials that are extremely durable, disregarding the lifespan and purpose of the structure. While this approach to materiality provides a high standard for structural stability and environmental control, it also causes a large volume of waste at the end of the life span of the building. While the material that’s been used mostly cannot be recycled, reused or biodegrade; it also forced the next structure to extract new resources from the environment. Introducing environment friendly materials and utilizing these materials efficiently in the design process is critical as the consumption of natural resources is becoming dangerously high.

Computation has been used for optimization of form and shape for decades. This research attempts to understand environmentally friendly materials, mud and bioplastics, and develop a computational design method that will implement these new materials behaviour and optimizing their use of them in the design process.

Concrete consumption is one of the major environmental issues of our time. This building material is used twice as much as all the other building materials combined. Furthermore, the United Nations predicts that human global population will reach 10 billion inhabitants by 2050. Correspondingly, it is projected that due to global migration from land to cities, almost 75% of the world’s population will be urbanized. For the building industry, this means that in thirty years we will roughly equal the entire volume of the construction made in the world’s history. In other words, the consumption of concrete is predicted to double over the next three decades. Given the importance that concrete has for the building industry, the ability to optimise the material usage can have a global impact in reducing both pressure from the natural environment and carbon footprint. To fully exploit the potential of concrete in a cost-effective and environmentally sensible way represents one of the greatest challenges posed to building technology today. The research question has been formulated based on this problem statement: How can a prefabricated structural concrete slab be designed to optimise the use of concrete, minimise material waste and allow for efficient (dis)assembly and reuse to extend its exploitation life? Currently, one of the main issues to reuse concrete elements is the implementation of steel rebars as reinforcement. This type of reinforcement corrodes and causes internal cracks in the concrete elements. This means that after time, the element cannot be reused as its structural capacity is compromised. This has led this research towards investigating novel strategies to provide concrete with tensile strength. Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) emerges as a potential solution. However, it is well known that the performance of FRC largely depends on the orientation of its fibres. To achieve this, production methods that can achieve a controlled fibre orientation are also reviewed. Here, 3D printing concrete (3DCP) emerges as an approach worthy to be explored. It has been observed that the fibres orient parallel to the deposition of the concrete layer. If this strategy is applied, this means that a printing path can be programmed and, the fibres will orient accordingly. A general outlook of 3DCP characteristics is reviewed in this research. Consequently, such characteristics are applied to the design of the reusable 3DCP slab. Besides the material characteristics, Circular Economy (CE) presents strategies to exploit the full potential and retain the optimal value of the physical environment. Principles of the CE are reviewed in this research through literature study. Special consideration has been put in the principle of Design for Reuse (DfR) as the objective of this research is to enable multi service-lives of the new 3DCP slab. Suitable aspects have been identified and applied to the design based on the properties of concrete and fabrication techniques. Here, the engineering of dry mechanical connections is sensible as the 3DCP slab can be efficiently demounted without the need to break or cut part of the slab. The simplicity of the connections is crucial in this research as this translates into savings of energy and CO2 emissions due to a rapid building process. Furthermore, the simplicity of the connection means an easy replacement upon damage without affectation to the whole concrete slab. The engineering and mechanical performance of the connections are addressed in this research. To conclude the research, the utility of the reusable 3DCP slab is studied. The results are compared to those of a traditional concrete slab and conclusions are drawn to assess the relevance of this new approach to reduce concrete consumption. Economic utility, policies and business models are excluded from this research as they are not the main focus and due to time constraints. This master thesis answers the research question by designing a concrete slab that can optimise the usage of concrete. This is achieved both by material characteristics, production process and the engineering of demountable connections. However, further physical research and testing are needed to properly evaluate the production process and its applicability to the current design. Nevertheless, the result looks promising.

The research of this thesis is focussed on the thermal insulation and structural properties of a thin glass composite panel with 3D-printed polymeric core.

Aluminosilicate glass, used in this research, is only 0,5 mm thick. This aluminosilicate can be used to replace current windows and structural façade element to reduce the use of scarce, raw materials. Due to its flexibility, a lightweight, trussed polymeric core is used to stiffen the glass. The core and the glass now act as a sandwich panel. The core is produced through additive manufacturing and an UV-curing glue is used to bond the core to the glass. Three different arrangements of the sandwich panel are tested. The first panel has a trussed pattern with an angle of 51˚, now called ‘standard pattern’, the second panel an angle of 67˚, now called ‘dense pattern’, and a third panel has three glass layers and two layers of a trussed pattern with an angle of 51˚, now called ‘double pattern’. The panels are tested with a heat flow test for their thermal insulation properties and a compression test to determine the failure mode of the panel, to check if the panel is structurally safe to use.

This research shows that the ‘double pattern’ panel almost meets the thermal insulation regulations of today. The panel will meet the regulations with some small improvements as using a gas instead of air an applying a coating. The failure mode of is delamination, this means that the panel is not safe to use as a load-bearing façade element. But the test showed that the panel can bear their self-weight, when increased to 1,245 x 3,2m.

Keywords: thin glass, PET, trussed pattern, thermal insulation, heat flow test, structural behaviour, compression test.