In the Netherlands, packaging dominates the plastic waste stream and is rich in polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene. Mechanical recycling remains the predominant route, but it faces challenges for packaging waste due to contamination, material degradation, and multilayer complexity, motivating pyrolysis-based routes that can recover hydrocarbon value from streams that are difficult to recycle mechanically.

This thesis assesses a fixed, gate-to-gate plastic pyrolysis and upgrading configuration and compares two outlet intents, producing either a single naphtha-range blendstock or a split slate with an additional jet-fuel-range blendstock cut. A steady-state mass and energy balance is developed for a fixed four-area plant topology (A100 pyrolysis, A200 hydrotreating, A300 hydrocracking and final fractionation, and A400 utilities and integration), and plant-boundary flows are monetised in a discounted cash flow model. The minimum selling price (MSP) is defined as the main-product price required for break-even at net present value equal to zero; one-at-a-time sensitivity is applied to key levers, and a pedigree-based lens is used to qualify claim strength.

At a common 40 kt/y plastic feed basis and 8,000 h/y utilisation, total saleable liquid production is essentially unchanged between outlet intents (2,807.73 kg/h versus 2,816.11 kg/h), while the jet-oriented intent mainly redistributes the liquid pool and increases electricity demand (112.40 to 219.92 kW). The resulting MSP is 2,134 EUR/t for the naphtha pathway and 4,940 EUR/t for the jet-fuel pathway, with the difference driven primarily by MSP closure and main-product basis in the split slate rather than by higher overall liquid yield. Sensitivity results show that scale and fuel-gas export monetisation dominate MSP: reducing capacity from 40 to 20 kt/y increases MSP by 28.2% (naphtha) and 37.7% (jet), and removing the fuel-gas export credit increases MSP by 10.8% and 14.3%, respectively.

Results are screening-level, steady-state, and gate-to-gate; they are not investment-grade, exclude full life-cycle assessment, and do not imply certification or aviation-fuel compliance.

Decarbonizing island energy systems is challenging due to isolation, high reliance on imported fossil fuels and variable renewable generation. Tilos, a small Greek island, has become a model for sustainable island development through the EU-funded TILOS project, which combined wind, solar and sodium–nickel chloride (NaNiCl₂) batteries. While successful, the system’s limited flexibility for long-duration storage motivates exploring alternative solutions.

This thesis evaluates whether a hybrid system combining vanadium flow batteries (VFBs) with hydrogen storage (H-BESS) could deliver greater societal value than the existing NaNiCl₂ configuration. The analysis applies a Social Cost–Benefit Analysis (SCBA) framework, extending beyond techno-economic comparisons to include environmental and social impacts. Net Social Benefit (NSB) and Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) serve as the main decision metrics.

A MATLAB-based computational model simulated Tilos’ annual demand (3,108 MWh) and renewable supply (2,553 MWh) under three scenarios: pessimistic, balanced, and optimistic. Results show the hybrid system increases renewable utilization (90.1% vs. 85.4%), reduces curtailment (–118 MWh/year), and modestly improves energy autonomy. Economically, the hybrid system achieves lower LCOS in balanced (€510/MWh) and optimistic (€263/MWh) scenarios compared to NaNiCl₂ (€656–555/MWh). NSB outcomes range from –€156k (pessimistic) to +€990k (optimistic), with sensitivity analysis identifying VFB capital cost as the most critical factor.

Beyond economics, the hybrid system delivers additional societal value through CO₂ reductions (21.2 t/year), potential hydrogen use in other sectors and near-complete recyclability of vanadium electrolytes.

The study concludes that hybrid VFB–H₂ systems can provide superior societal benefits under favorable cost trajectories. Policymakers should consider phased deployment on Tilos and support measures for VFB cost reduction and hydrogen market development, with potential replication across other Greek islands.

The electrification of the Dutch chemical industry is essential to meet national and European climate targets. However, limited grid capacity and elevated electricity prices currently hinder large-scale adoption. This research investigates the techno-economic feasibility of powering sub-processes at a Dutch chemical plant with a Local Energy System (LES) that integrates Renewable Energy Generation (REG) and Energy Storage Systems (ESS), as an alternative to grid expansion. The objective is to determine the cost-optimal configuration of Short-Duration Energy Storage (SDES) and Long-Duration Energy Storage (LDES) technologies under various system constraints, including capital investment and operational costs, in order to allow an initial trade-off with conventional grid expansion.

This research developed a year-long optimization model using PyPSA to simulate the lectrification of a 20 MW thermal process by replacing a natural gas boiler with an electric steam boiler. The model runs on an hourly resolution, incorporating 2024 weather data, a fixed industrial demand, and technical constraints related to storage efficiency, lifetime, and discharge duration. It jointly optimizes the installed power capacities of wind, solar, and two distinct storage types: lithium-LFP batteries (SDES) with up to 6 hours discharge, and iron-air batteries (LDES) with discharge time up to 100 hours.

Three LES scenarios were analysed, each with different storage configurations, and benchmarked against a grid expansion base case. Expert interviews validated the modelling approach, and additional sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the impact of increased energy demand volatility, constrained REG mix, and SDES capital cost reductions.

The model results show that a LES integrating solar and wind power with iron-air LDES can fully electrify a 20 MW thermal load at competitive cost. The cost-optimal power configuration includes 96.5 MW of wind, 32.3 MW of solar, and 29.3 MW of LDES. This results in total annual system costs of €16.83 million, which is 1.5% lower than grid expansion and 37% lower than an SDES-only configuration.

LDES proved to be the most cost-effective ESS to meet stable chemical demand, due to its low energy-specific cost (€20/kWh) and its ability to buffer multi-day shortages. In contrast, lithium-LFP SDES is limited by its higher energy-specific cost (€182/kWh) and short discharge duration, which does not align with the continuous inflexible energy demand of the chemical industry. This leads to excess REG curtailment and the need for oversized power capacity. In contrast to other studies, hybrid ESS setups offered no additional value under the studied chemical conditions. This underscores that the effectiveness of storage technologies is closely tied to demand profiles and the availability of REG.

Sensitivity analysis showed that SDES becomes cost-effective only under high demand volatility (5–35 MW) or when its CapEx drops by at least 20%. Wind is preferred over solar due to better alignment with continuous chemical demand; solar caused system oversizing and comes with high curtailment. The results underline the importance of aligning ESS design with demand profiles and REG availability.

Expert interviews helped to validate the credibility of the model its technical assumptions but also highlighted practical barriers to LES deployment, including spatial constraints, permitting procedures, and additional system costs. These barriers are expected to impact real-world feasibility. They further noted that the current Dutch policy environment weakens the business case for industrial electrification due to high grid tariffs and limited compensation mechanisms.

In conclusion, this research demonstrates that a cost-competitive LES combining wind, solar, and LDES can fully electrify chemical processes without relying on grid expansion. While technically and economically feasible, real-world implementation will depend on site-specific factors and regulatory reform. The developed model offers a valuable decision-support tool for industries and policymakers aiming to accelerate industrial decarbonisation.

The Netherlands faces a critical housing shortage, estimated at over 400,000 homes in 2024, while simultaneously pursuing ambitious climate goals. Prefabricated housing offers a promising solution, as it enables faster construction, minimizes material waste, and improves energy efficiency. However, despite its technical and non-technical advantages and alignment with sustainability agendas, its market adoption remains limited and fragmented in the Dutch context. This study examines the key factors influencing the market adoption of prefabricated housing in the Netherlands, with a focus on the underlying misalignments among actors from diverse sectors.

To explore this issue, the study applied a mixed-methods research design. An extensive literature review was conducted to identify factors influencing adoption in the existing literature. Subsequently, three stages of expert interviews were conducted with 12 experts from academia, industry, and government, who represent the Triple Helix model. The Best-Worst Method (BWM) was then applied to rank nine consolidated adoption factors based on expert input systematically. The process was followed by a thematic analysis and triangulation with 25 international studies to explore the reasoning behind stakeholder preferences and variation in prioritization.

The nine key factors assessed were:
1. Financial and Economic Viability
2. Consumer Perception and Market Demand
3. Policy and Regulatory Support
4. Speed and Construction Efficiency
5. Sustainability and Environmental Impact
6. Industry Collaboration and Workforce Development
7. Structural Quality and Durability
8. Technological Advancements and Standardisation
9. Supply Chain and Logistics Efficiency

As seen above, financial and economic viability ranked highest, indicating that cost-effectiveness, profitability, and affordability are decisive for both public and private actors. Consumer perception and market demand followed closely, reflecting the role of public trust and design acceptability. Policy and regulatory support was also ranked highly, which emphasizes the need for efficient permits and consistent policies. Conversely, factors such as technological advancements and supply chain logistics, often emphasised in the literature, were deprioritised by experts, who saw them as either already developed or less influential in current decision-making contexts.

BWM analysis also revealed that prioritizations were not sectorally consistent: experts within the same sector often disagreed. Instead, through thematic analysis and triangulation, it is known that factor rankings were shaped by an individual’s background, institutional mandate, and past project experience. For example, experts with experience in government focused on financial viability and regulatory support, while industry actors emphasized financial viability and sustainability. In the meantime, academic experts often stressed consumer perception, construction speed, and cross-sector collaboration.

This study presents a stakeholder-informed, decision-analytic framework for understanding the adoption of prefabricated housing. It emphasizes that accelerating adoption requires not only technical innovation but also coordinated cross-sectoral strategies, financial incentives, a shared narrative that enhances consumer perception, and policy support. The findings offer practical insights for policymakers, developers, and researchers seeking to mainstream prefabricated housing as a sustainable, scalable, and socially accepted housing solution in the Netherlands.

As Greece pursues rapid decarbonisation and energy system transformation, green hydrogen is increasingly positioned as a cornerstone for achieving ambitious climate and energy targets. Nowhere are these dynamics more apparent than in Western Macedonia — the country’s primary lignite region — which is undergoing profound economic and social restructuring as coal is phased out. This thesis critically examines the justice dimensions of Greece’s green hydrogen transition, focusing on procedural, distributive and recognition justice in Western Macedonia. To examine the identified research objectives, this study utilised a mixed-methods approach, including qualitative content analysis of documents that provide information about the policies and legislative framework that have been adopted to support energy transition through green hydrogen. In addition, nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with stakeholders among industry experts, policy advisors, energy community members and researchers. Findings show participation remains largely symbolic, decision-making centralised, and benefits unevenly shared, with vulnerable groups bearing burdens and limited acknowledgement. Implementation faces high costs, funding gaps and regulatory shortcomings. Despite rhetoric, justice principles are weakly operationalised. The study recommends co-design with communities, support for energy communities, transparent governance and accountability, targeted reskilling, and clearer policy guidance to embed justice in practice and ensure fairer, legitimate transition pathways.

The Dutch electricity system is undergoing a rapid transformation driven by the increasing share of variable renewable energy sources like wind and solar power. This transition, coupled with the electrification of various sectors, is leading to growing imbalances between electricity supply and demand, challenging the stability of the grid. To maintain balance, the Transmission System Operator (TSO), TenneT, relies on balancing services such as the automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve (aFRR). Traditionally provided by conventional power plants, there is a growing need for new flexible resources like Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) to participate in these markets.

 

Currently, the business model for home battery aggregators like Zonneplan is based on "passive balancing," where batteries strategically take out-of-balance positions to profit from imbalance price fluctuations. However, the sudden widespread and simultaneous application of this strategy has led to unintended consequences, including system oscillations and a high frequency of "Regulation State 2" (RS2) quarters, where the system swings between shortage and surplus. This development not only complicates grid management for TenneT but also reduces the profitability of passive balancing for market participants.

 

In response, TenneT is working to make active participation in the aFRR market more attractive for fast-responding assets like batteries. This research addresses the critical question of whether a shift from passive balancing to active aFRR participation is financially viable for aggregators of home batteries, using Zonneplan as a case study.

 

This thesis compares the performance of Zonneplan's passive balancing strategy with three simulated aFRR bidding strategies. The research is guided by the following main research question: How does the performance of aFRR bidding strategies compare to Zonneplan’s currently used passive balancing strategy?

 

To answer this, the study is structured around three sub-questions:

1. How does the currently used passive balancing strategy of Zonneplan work and how does it perform under the growing frequency of Regulation State 2 ISPs?

2. What are the current trends in the aFRR bidding ladder, prices, and volumes?

3. What are possible bidding strategies for Zonneplan to participate in the Dutch aFRR market and how do they perform?

To answer these research questions, the study applies a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative case analysis, quantitative data analysis, and simulation modeling. Zonneplan's passive balancing strategy was examined through internal documentation and discussions with employees. A backcast of the period January 2024–March 2025 was used to analyze the passive balancing strategy performance using Python, while considering Ex-Post trading and both internal and external portfolio advantages. The aFRR market analysis drew on publicly available TenneT datasets to identify trends in prices, volumes, and bidding ladder. Finally, three aFRR bidding strategies were simulated using a custom-built Python model that replicates bidding, activation, and financial settlement processes at one-minute resolution, enabling a robust comparison with Zonneplan’s passive balancing strategy. The model incorporates real-world constraints such as bid timing and state-of-charge limitations.

The analysis of Zonneplan's passive balancing backcast data from January 2024 to March 2025 reveals that while the strategy initially showed growing revenue, its revenue has been declining since August 2024. This is mainly due to increasing charging costs and partly due to the increased frequency of RS2, which, despite price risk mitigation through Ex-Post trading and Portfolio advantages, limits revenue opportunities.

The aFRR market analysis identifies key trends, including the impact of the European PICASSO platform, which has led to higher activation volumes. While extreme price peaks for upward regulation have become less frequent, average prices remain attractive. A clear daily pattern in aFRR prices, often correlated with Day-Ahead market prices, presents opportunities for dynamic bidding.

Three aFRR bidding strategies were simulated: a constant bid strategy, a Day-Ahead price-based strategy, and an intraday price-based strategy. The Day-Ahead price-based strategy (Bid Strategy 2) yielded the highest net revenue, consistently outperforming the others.

 

The final comparison shows that the simulated aFRR bid strategy (Bid Strategy 2) consistently generates higher net revenue than the passive balancing strategy throughout the entire analysis period. The aFRR strategy achieves higher activation volumes and benefits from being able to capture revenue during RS2 periods, where passive balancing is ineffective. Furthermore, aFRR participation aligns directly with the TSO's need for system stability, offering a more robust and system-supportive business model.

 

The discussion highlights key limitations of this research, including limited data availability on passive balancing, simplifications in the bidding simulations, and the rapidly evolving nature of the aFRR market. It also outlines the main implications for the broader context and key stakeholders. For home battery aggregators, the findings demonstrate a clear financial incentive to transition from passive balancing to active aFRR participation, offering not only more stable and higher revenues but also enabling batteries to contribute more effectively to grid stability. For TenneT, it is encouraging that there is a clear financial incentive for aggregators to shift from passive balancing to active aFRR participation. This shift is expected to reduce the frequency oscillations that are currently amplified by uncoordinated passive responses, while enabling batteries to actively support grid stability by following TenneT's aFRR setpoints, effectively using their fast response capabilities to prevent oscillations rather than cause them. Finally, for home battery owners, the study suggests that while passive balancing revenues are declining, participating in aFRR through aggregators can maintain a reasonable payback period.

 

The research concludes with several suggestions for future work. Future studies should examine how an aFRR-focused strategy can be integrated into broader multi-market value stacking approaches, including intraday arbitrage and selective passive balancing, to reduce revenue volatility and improve overall profitability. More detailed econometric and scenario-based analyses are also needed to better understand aFRR market dynamics, especially in light of regulatory changes and increasing cross-border integration via PICASSO. As battery participation grows, future research should explore potential market saturation effects and their impact on price levels, activation frequency, and aggregator returns. Lastly, the gradual phase-out of gas-fired power plants from balancing markets introduces new uncertainties, warranting investigation into how this shift could affect price volatility, scarcity pricing, and the strategic positioning of new flexible assets like batteries.

The European Union aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, requiring large-scale electrification and increased reliance on renewable energy sources. This transition places growing stress on national power grids, including in the Netherlands, where grid congestion is most severe during peak hours, leaving significant off-peak capacity underutilized. While grid expansion offers a direct solution, it is costly and does not address the imbalance between peak and off-peak loads. Shifting consumption away from peak hours would improve grid efficiency and reduce the need for long-term infrastructure investments. Dynamic electricity pricing is considered a promising tool to stimulate such demand flexibility by providing households with financial incentives to reduce or shift consumption during expensive peak periods.

This thesis investigates the impact of dynamic electricity prices on residential consumption patterns using hourly electricity consumption and price data from 813 Norwegian households. Norway provides a valuable context due to its advanced energy transition, characterized by high adoption of dynamic contracts (≈75%) and electrification levels (≈84%). The central research question is: How do dynamic electricity prices influence intra-day electricity consumption patterns among residential consumers? We focus on the extent to which households reduce or shift demand in response to price changes, and on the moderating role of household characteristics and enabling technologies.

We exploit the natural experiment created by the 2021 winter price shock, comparing household consumption during this period to the preceding winter. Two econometric models are employed. The first examines the overall impact of dynamic pricing during the price shock. The second explores intra-day responsiveness by testing how households adjust demand to hourly price variation across days, while controlling for household habits and common shocks such as weather. We further conduct subgroup analyses to explore heterogeneity in responsiveness.
The results indicate that households with dynamic contracts reduced consumption more than those with fixed contracts during the 2021 price shock. A 1 NOK price increase had a stronger effect in the shock period compared to the previous winter. Intra-day responsiveness was concentrated in peak hours, with an average consumption reduction of 3.3%. Subgroup analysis highlights the role of enabling technology: households owning electric vehicles (EVs), particularly with smart-charging systems, showed greater peak-hour reductions and clear evidence of shifting load to cheaper off-peak hours.

From a policy perspective, these findings suggest that dynamic contracts incentivize demand-side flexibility, though effects remain modest. Time-of-Use contracts may provide sufficient incentives for most households, given their predictability, while real-time pricing contracts hold greater long-term potential, especially alongside enabling technologies. Encouraging adoption of dynamic contracts and supporting complementary technologies could enhance household responsiveness, contributing meaningfully to grid efficiency.

The building sector is one of the largest consumers of energy and a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is therefore critical to reducing environmental impacts and achieving the climate targets set by the European Green Deal. In this context, energy renovations, such as insulation upgrades and heating system improvements, are widely promoted as a key strategy. However, there remains considerable uncertainty around the actual energy savings achieved in practice, partly due to performance gaps and behavioral rebound effects. This thesis aims to quantify the real-world impact of energy-efficient renovations on residential gas consumption in the Netherlands, focusing on older dwellings constructed before 1980.

Utilizing data from the WoON 2018 housing survey, which includes detailed data on dwellings and households, the study employs a multiple linear regression model to isolate the effect of renovations on energy use. By comparing the energy consumption of similar renovated and non-renovated dwellings using statistical methods, this study leverages real-world data to estimate the extent to which renovations reduce energy consumption. The research addresses the influence of occupant behavior and other contextual factors, aiming to provide robust estimates of energy savings attributable to renovations.

The results show that a one-unit improvement in thermal quality, roughly equivalent to upgrading three energy label classes, is associated with a 16.4% average reduction in annual gas consumption. Interestingly, the effect of renovations increases with higher thermal quality levels, contrary to the expectation of diminishing returns. In contrast, differences in gas consumption among homes rated between label G and D are not statistically significant. A national policy scenario, in which all dwellings are upgraded to label D, is estimated to reduce total residential gas consumption by only 0.8–1.3%, and by 1.4–2.3% within the sample. A robustness check incorporating thermostat temperature reveals signs of a rebound effect, suggesting that improved efficiency may lead to increased usage or comfort gains that offset part of the savings.

These findings have important implications for energy and climate policy. First, they underscore the need for ambitious renovation standards, as moderate improvements may yield limited savings. Second, they raise concerns about the effectiveness of using label D as a regulatory or subsidy threshold. Finally, the results support more nuanced cost-benefit evaluations and the targeting of deeper retrofits in older buildings to achieve meaningful reductions in energy use. Overall, this study contributes empirical evidence to inform the design and evaluation of renovation policies aimed at transitioning the residential sector toward near-zero energy buildings by 2050.

The Dutch high-tech manufacturing sector is undergoing a Twin Transition: the simultaneous shift toward digital transformation and improved sustainability. This dual transition is driven by the need to maintain technological leadership while meeting national climate goals and complying with the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). Although digital technologies can support sustainability efforts, they also introduce trade-offs that make the relationship between these goals complex.

This research addresses a key gap in both academic literature and industry practice: the lack of a sector-specific decision-support tool that connects digital maturity with sustainability performance. Using a Design Science Research (DSR) approach, the study followed four phases: problem explication, requirements definition, design and development, and demonstration and evaluation.
1. Through expert interviews and literature reviews, ten key challenges were identified, of which four were prioritized for tool development by applying the Stacey Matrix. These include unclear returns on investment, limited visibility into sustainability impacts, the absence of sector-specific roadmaps, and a lack of methods for weighing trade-offs between digital and sustainability goals.
2. To define the tool’s requirements, a second literature review and five user interviews were conducted, resulting in functional, structural, and contextual specifications using the MoSCoW framework.
3. The resulting tool consists of three integrated components: a company-specific ESG and digital maturity survey, a Twin Transition maturity model across People, Process, and Policy dimensions, and a recommendation dashboard. This dashboard maps digital manufacturing technologies based on their sustainability impact and implementation complexity. The tool adapts an existing maturity model by aligning ESG priorities with digital transformation levels, and uses Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis (EEIOA) and ESG materiality mapping for impact assessment.
4. Demonstrations with consultants and a manufacturing firm showed that the tool is effective in bridging departmental silos and supporting strategic discussions. It helps companies translate high-level sustainability and digital goals into actionable steps suited to their specific context. Rather than offering prescriptive solutions, the tool serves as a structured guide for informed decision-making.

The research contributes to Twin Transition theory by providing the first integrated framework that explicitly links digital capabilities to ESG outcomes in the high-tech manufacturing sector. Methodologically, it shows how stakeholder input and quantitative analysis can be combined in a practical, industry-ready tool. While the tool offers a valuable starting point, the study also highlights its limitations, particularly in addressing the political and cultural dynamics that shape real-world change. Future research should explore how this approach can be adapted to other sectors and to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Longitudinal studies, deeper lifecycle assessments, and cross-national comparisons will also be needed to understand the broader dynamics of the Twin Transition.

As East African countries seek to address persistent energy poverty while positioning themselves within the global green economy, solar photovoltaics (PV) has emerged as a promising technological and industrial pathway. However, current patterns of adoption in the region remain heavily dependent on imported components, particularly from China, and are largely limited to deployment and distribution stages. This dependency not only undermines long-term energy security but also constrains the region’s ability to capture industrial and employment benefits associated with the clean energy transition.

This thesis investigates the potential for East African countries to collectively establish a regional solar PV manufacturing value chain (RVC), drawing strategic insights from China’s rise as the world’s leading solar PV producer. It addresses the core research question: To what extent can regional cooperation help East African countries build a sustainable solar PV value chain, and how can China’s experience inform this process?

The study adopts a multi-framework analytical approach, integrating the Technological Innovation System (TIS) framework, a regional integration into global value chains (GVCs) perspective informed by Bamber et al.’s competitiveness framework, and the developmental regionalism approach. These frameworks are applied sequentially across three empirical chapters.

First, through a TIS analysis of twelve East African countries, the study identifies systemic bottlenecks in the region’s solar PV innovation systems. While downstream deployment is gaining momentum—especially through off-grid solutions—upstream and midstream industrial development remains limited. Functions such as knowledge development, entrepreneurial experimentation, and resource mobilization are weakly fulfilled. Kenya and Ethiopia are the only countries showing nascent manufacturing activities: Kenya through local module assembly (Solinc), and Ethiopia through foreign direct investment in cell production. Most other countries lack the institutional coordination, industrial capabilities, and policy direction needed to support solar PV manufacturing.

Second, the study applies a regional value chain lens grounded in regional integration theory and developmental regionalism to explore the feasibility of task-sharing across countries. No single East African country possesses the full set of capabilities required for a vertically integrated solar PV industry. However, several countries demonstrate complementary strengths: Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda possess critical mineral reserves such as tin and copper; Ethiopia offers abundant low-cost hydropower for energy-intensive processing; Kenya has the most advanced industrial infrastructure and logistics connectivity. This uneven distribution of capabilities provides a strong rationale for a coordinated regional manufacturing strategy based on functional specialization.

To operationalize this vision, the thesis proposes a regional specialization model in which upstream resource processing is concentrated in mineral-rich countries, midstream activities are sited in energy-abundant zones, and downstream module assembly and system integration is anchored in Kenya. Countries like Rwanda may also serve in support roles for certification and trade facilitation. This model not only addresses structural asymmetries but also aligns with the principles of developmental regionalism that emphasize state-led industrial cooperation and regional complementarity.

Third, the study turns to China’s experience in developing a world-leading solar PV industry as a latecomer. Through catch-up theory and policy transfer analysis, the research identifies both the mechanisms behind China’s success—such as sequenced industrial policy, vertical coordination, and innovation investment—and the structural differences that constrain direct replication in East Africa. Instead of wholesale policy borrowing, the thesis identifies a selective set of transferable lessons: gradual policy layering, clustering and SEZ development, quality certification systems, public-private-academic collaboration, and performance-linked incentives.

The study concludes that while East Africa faces formidable constraints—ranging from fragmented markets to underdeveloped industrial ecosystems—strategic regional cooperation presents a viable path forward. By aligning national comparative advantages and adapting selected lessons from China’s experience, East African countries can collectively enter higher-value segments of the global solar PV supply chain. This will require not only targeted investment and institutional innovation, but also robust regional mechanisms to coordinate infrastructure, standards, and industrial policy.

This thesis investigates the feasibility of battery industry development in the DRC-Zambia region by identifying enabling conditions across global cases. Using a PESTLE framework, it synthesises political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors that shape battery manufacturing success. A comparative analysis shows Zambia holds significantly stronger enabling conditions than the DRC, though both face key challenges. To address this, the study proposes a regional strategy of functional specialisation across the DRC, Zambia, and South Africa, supported by targeted interventions based on the Regional Innovation Systems (RIS) framework. The findings contribute both a replicable benchmark for assessing battery industry feasibility and a policy-oriented design strategy tailored to the Central-Southern African context.

The global expansion of offshore wind energy is accelerating, driven by growing demand for clean electricity and continuous innovation. As projects scale up and move farther from shore, cost-efficient transmission becomes increasingly important. Transmission infrastructure (such as offshore substations (OSS) and export cables) can account for up to 30% of a wind farm’s total capital expenditure, making transmission system design a critical factor for overall project viability.

Recent advancements have enabled offshore wind turbines to generate electricity at 132 kV. This raises a fundamental design question: if turbines are increasingly becoming capable of generating at 132 kV voltage level, does it remain necessary to add costly offshore substations to further step up the voltage or can 132 kV also be used as the export voltage directly to shore? Traditionally, an OSS collects the power from turbines and steps up the voltage for efficient transmission. This thesis explores whether direct-to-shore configurations using 132 kV can offer a technically and economically viable alternative to conventional step-up systems.
While 132 kV systems are beginning to appear in planned projects, existing literature still treats this voltage primarily as suitable for infield collection, not export. The idea that it could also enable direct-to-shore export is rarely discussed and lacks supporting technical or economic analysis, likely due to the novelty of the technology. As a result, the potential to eliminate the OSS (one of the most expensive and complex components in offshore transmission) has not been critically examined.

This thesis addresses that gap by evaluating four transmission configurations - two with offshore substations and two direct-to-shore - within the context of Vattenfall’s 1.2 GW Kattegat Syd project in Sweden. The assessment considered seven key criteria: Capital Expenditure (CAPEX), Operational Expenditure (OPEX), Revenue, Risk, Ease of Implementation, Environmental & Permitting Impact, and Innovation & Scalability.

The 132 kV direct-to-shore configuration outperforms OSS-based systems on CAPEX, Revenue, Risk, and Innovation & Scalability, primarily due to reduced infrastructure and simplified supply chains. In contrast, it performs worse on Ease of Implementation and Environmental & Permitting Impact, due to the immaturity of the concept and the higher number of export cables required, which complicate permitting procedures. This reveals that the main trade-off lies between economic and future-readiness benefits on the one hand, and implementation and permitting challenges on the other.

To incorporate stakeholder preferences into the evaluation, Vattenfall’s Technical Project Manager (TPM) and Project Director (PD) for the Kattegat Syd project were interviewed. Using the Best-Worst Tradeoff (BWT) method, they assigned relative importance to each criterion based on their expertise and project experience. Combining these weightings with the performance scores of each alternative, the 132 kV direct-to-shore option emerged as the top-ranked configuration for both decision-makers.

This thesis contributes scientifically by addressing a clear knowledge gap: although 132 kV turbines are emerging, their use for direct-to-shore transmission has not yet been technically or economically evaluated in academic literature. In addition, the study introduces a previously undocumented system configuration (a 132 kV direct-to-shore setup with an onshore substation near landfall) and demonstrates the practical value of the BWT method as a decision-support tool for complex infrastructure design. The study provides a structured framework for decision-making in offshore transmission planning and sparks the discussion on considering 132 kV direct-to-shore configurations as a viable alternative in future projects.

Climate change presents a significant global challenge, prompting governments to adopt a range of mitigation strategies, most notably, carbon pricing schemes. However, such policies are often met with concern over carbon leakage, where emissions reductions in one country are offset by increases elsewhere, potentially undermining the environmental effectiveness of national efforts. This thesis investigates the relationship between carbon pricing policies and national carbon leakage rates over the period 1995–2018. Drawing on data from the TECO2 dataset and the International and Sectoral Variation in Industrial Energy Prices 1995–2015, and applying the electricity price elasticity methodology introduced by Misch and Wingender (2024), this study calculates annual carbon leakage rates for each country. In doing so, it extends previous research, such as the Misch and Wingender and Sato et al (2019). A key contribution of this thesis is its novel application of the Carbon Pricing Dashboard, a dataset that remains underutilized in empirical research. This study aims to demonstrate its potential for carbon leakage analysis. Another important contribution is the attempt to extend the methodology developed by Misch and Wingender by applying it not only to CO₂ emissions, as in the original study, but also to broader greenhouse gas emissions. This provides insight into the scope and limitations of their approach when adapted to different types of emissions data. Finally, this thesis contributes to the ongoing policy discussion on carbon pricing by linking yearly carbon leakage rates to country specific pricing policy variables, such as carbon price levels and policy coverage. In doing so, it investigates whether systematic relationships exist between national carbon pricing strategies and the extent of carbon leakage. The results indicate that carbon pricing policies explain a meaningful share of the variation in leakage rates across countries, though country-specific fixed effects account for an even larger portion, suggesting that structural or institutional factors may play a more dominant role. Notably, the analysis reveals a negative relationship between carbon pricing and leakage rates, implying that more ambitious pricing policies may actually help reduce leakage. This finding challenges the prevailing narrative in the literature, which often assumes that stricter carbon pricing increases leakage and harms competitiveness. It suggests that policymakers might be able to adopt stronger carbon pricing measures without significant economic drawbacks. Additionally, the study finds no strong evidence that coordinated international carbon pricing efforts lead to greater leakage reductions compared to unilateral national policies, raising questions about the added value of formal international alignment in this context. However, these results should be interpreted with caution. The method used to estimate leakage rates may introduce bias, and further validation is necessary. That said, the research has some limitations. Most notably, the fixed effects model could not incorporate time fixed effects due to data constraints, raising the risk that some time-related variation may have been wrongly attributed to policy variables. This limitation may partly explain the unexpected direction of some results. By extending and refining the methodology developed by Misch and Wingender (2024), this thesis offers new empirical insights into the drivers of carbon leakage and contributes to the policy debate on the design and efficacy of national carbon pricing frameworks. In doing so, it also provides a more detailed methodological reflection on the assumptions and limitations inherent in price elasticity based leakage estimation.

This thesis investigates the socio-economic and ecological challenges faced by the Galapagos Islands, focusing on their increasing reliance on mainland Ecuador for food and the social tensions stemming from top-down conservation policies. These challenges are compounded by the islands’ growing ecological footprint and tourism pressures. The study explores the potential of Circular Communities, regenerativity, and convivial conservation as frameworks to address ongoing issues in the food sector and to provide recommendations for structural solutions.

Using a mixed methods approach and participatory action research, the study holistically analyses the productive food systems of Santa Cruz and San Cristobal, the primary inhabited islands. By conducting active participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and a co-creation workshop, the researcher uncovered findings that indicate how adopting a regenerative food system can reduce the islands’ dependency on external resources, decrease ecological pressures, enhance social cohesion, and align conservation efforts with local entrepreneurial needs.

Decarbonizing the European steel industry has become an urgent priority within the framework of EU climate targets and the broader global energy transition. While green hydrogen offers a promising route to abate emissions in this hard-to-abate sector, its integration faces complex socio-technical challenges. This work aims to analyze these dynamics by applying the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) to identify the drivers and barriers shaping the adoption of hydrogen in steelmaking. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining a semi-systematic literature review and expert interviews with the development of a novel Comparative Pathway Alignment Matrix (CPAM). This assessment reveals that while radical hydrogen-based Direct Reduced Iron (H2-DRI) with Electric Arc Furnaces offers the highest potential for CO2 reduction (90–95%), it is currently constrained by significant infrastructure and economic hurdles. Consequently, this study identifies flexible H2-DRI systems as the most likely near-term pathway, as they allow for modular implementation that aligns with existing reinvestment cycles. The results highlight that a phased transition, supported by targeted risk-sharing policies and infrastructure development, is essential to reconcile deep decarbonization goals with the structural realities of the steel regime.

The increasing demand for Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) and the subsequent rise in e-waste has become a pressing environmental concern. Traditional linear economic models in the EEE manufacturing sector, which emphasize a "take-make-dispose" approach, are not sustainable and contribute to significant environmental degradation. This thesis explores the integration of circular economy (CE) principles with digital twin technology to address the environmental challenges posed by the EEE sector. Through an extensive literature review and expert interviews, this research develops and validates a framework for integrating digital twins into CBMs, aiming to enhance resource efficiency and reduce waste across the product lifecycle. While promising, challenges related to data governance and organizational alignment remain. The Digital Twin Nexus Circular Business Models framework offers strategies to improve sustainability in the EEE sector, aiding manufacturers in transitioning from linear to circular business practices.

The water and subsurface sector faces numerous urgent challenges related to climate adaptation and sustainable infrastructure. It is the responsibility of Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) to establish objectives and collaborate with partners in the sector to address these challenges. Innovations are crucial for effectively addressing these issues, and therefore, RWS has developed an innovation strategy focused on the tactical level, which provides essential information for its employees and partners. This study examines RWS’s current innovation strategy and its development, evaluates the strategy’s influence on innovation processes within the water and subsurface sector, and offers recommendations for enhancing the strategy. Specifically, the study investigates the influence of RWS’s innovation strategy on resource allocation, the development and diffusion of innovations, and both internal and external collaboration. The findings indicate that the influence of RWS’s innovation strategy is most evident in resource allocation, where its focal points serve as guiding principles for innovation and as accountability mechanisms. Furthermore, the influence of the strategy on the development and diffusion of innovations, as well as on both internal and external collaboration, is becoming increasingly apparent in practice; however, it requires additional time for further visibility. Positive developments include the adoption of specific tools designed to stimulate the innovation process and the implementation of innovative collaborative approaches, such as learning spaces. To enhance RWS’s innovation strategy and its influence in the water and subsurface sector, this study recommends maintaining continuity, improving visibility and clarity, and stimulating sector-wide collaboration and alignment.

Every year, the world generates 7-10 billion tonnes of waste. Rapid population growth, urbanisation, and increased consumption is projected to increase this number by 70% in 2050. Asia generates the most waste globally and also imports a significant amount of waste from other regions. Waste valorisation transforms waste into higher value products and can be a crucial solution for sustainable waste management in Asia. This research builds on the Technological Innovation System (TIS) Framework and adapts it to the contexts of Asia and the waste valorisation industry with new drivers and barriers. The adapted framework was applied to four case studies of Asian waste- valorising companies: EnviroTech in the Philippines, Ricron Panels in India, Kinava in South Korea, and Less & Co in Singapore. The TIS framework analysis identified barriers that can be grouped into 3 categories: 1) lack of customer demand, 2) incomplete or inefficient operations, and 3) lack of institutional support and resulted in a total of 41 niche strategies that can serve as a resource for companies facing similar barriers.