The world is facing a water quality crisis in the form of water pollution and scarcity like it has never seen before. Discharges of untreated sewage wastewater flows into the natural watercourses constitute a menace to the environment. Academia and the scientific community have explored and proposed circular economy (CE) concepts aimed at mitigating the human footprint on natural resources and focusing on ensuring sustainable water management initiatives. Under this notion conventional wastewater treatment plants (CWWTP) are turning into water resource recovery facilities, which not only clean its wastewater but also recover the useful organic resources like energy and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) that otherwise are destroyed or disposed back to the environment. However, research has also indicated that the implementation of these circular economy practices lacks a system’s thinking approach when it comes to understanding the importance of social issues, where the needs and rights of all social actors and local communities are adequately considered. Consequently, this study provides a methodological approach which through qualitative and quantitative methods that integrates the opinions and preferences of stakeholders at various stages of the project, enhances the robustness of its findings. From the empirical input of key stakeholders, relevant criteria were identified to assess the sustainability impact of nutrient recovery technical alternatives from urban wastewater treatment plants.
The evaluation conducted at the Las Esclusas CWWTP in Ecuador (used as a case study) highlights the significance of social considerations, particularly in the context of implementing nutrient recovery technologies in countries from the Global South. A preliminary technical assessment showed that three commercially nutrient recovery technologies could be feasible to be implemented at this plant (precipitation/crystallization of struvite and mono-incineration & AshDEC to recover phosphorus and ammonia stripping to recover nitrogen). However, none of these technologies can be immediately implemented under current conditions. Many aspects will need to change before the plant is ready to recover nutrients like adding a secondary treatment. Yet the input from stakeholders in assessing relevant criteria for the purpose of measuring the sustainability performance per nutrient recovery technology, was instrumental to underline the importance of social aspects and emphasize the essential role of the institutional landscape. Challenges within the institutional domain, characterized by inefficiencies in the legislative and political systems, pose significant obstacles to the implementation of nutrient recovery technologies. In the specific case of Las Esclusas CWWTP, the absence of robust environmental legislation and institutional commitment towards circular economy projects, diminishes the feasibility and perceived value of implementing nutrient recovery systems. Furthermore, cross-cutting issues such as bureaucratic inefficiencies and lack of institutional transparency further complicates the attempt to progress at a faster rate within the context of the application of circular economy initiatives to the sustainable management of wastewater. Without proactive government engagement and inter-institutional collaboration, the transition to circular practices in the wastewater sector remains unlikely in countries from the Global South. This inclusive approach emphasizes the importance of considering social perspectives in wastewater management practices which ultimately contributes to more responsible and socially relevant decision-making processes.

This thesis investigated the socio-technical and institutional factors that affecting the development of solar PV value chain in two case studies, China and SADC. The study for China is aimed for providing a lesson learned from the best practice in building and dominating solar PV value chain in the world. Moreover, the study in SADC is to understanding the region’s current progress, to propose strategic recommendations in building the regional PV value chain.

Findings show that China’s rise in the global PV industry was shaped by three interlinked strategies: (1) strong government orchestration and long-term planning, (2) capturing the entire value chain step by step, and (3) infrastructure-driven industrialization supported by diversified financing and technology transfer. In contrast, SADC’s PV development remains fragmented. The TIS assessment revealed uneven performance across upstream, midstream, and downstream segments, with most activity concentrated in downstream deployment through auctions and rural electrification. These programs, while reliant on imported components, demonstrate that demand creation can stimulate market growth and
eventually feed back into manufacturing opportunities.

Comparing both cases, the research identifies several lessons for SADC:
• Proactive but flexible orchestration at the regional level is needed to balance diverse national interests.
• Building local capabilities should start with segments that have lower entry barriers (e.g., module assembly, balance-of-system components).
• A stronger and more diversified domestic financial ecosystem is required to reduce dependence on donor funding.
• Integrated infrastructure and logistics are essential to reduce costs and improve competitiveness.
• Rural electrification can serve as an anchor market, driving consistent demand in the downstream segment and supporting upstream and midstream growth.

From these insights, the thesis proposes that SADC’s strategic interventions should involve aligning regional institutions as active orchestrators, encouraging country-level institutions (especially South Africa, DRC, and Zambia) to push higher-tech manufacturing, and leveraging international institutions and FDI not only for capital but also for knowledge transfer and long-term capacity building .

Theoretical contribution lies in the introduction of a multilayer analytical framework that integrates TIS functions, PV design factors, and regional integration theory. This approach highlights how institutional dynamics and socio-technical drivers interact in shaping regional value chains. It adds nuance to the literature on regional industrialization in the Global South by linking demand creation, institutional orchestration, and capability building.

This thesis highly reliance on desk research with limited interviews, constrained access to region-wide data, and exclusion of sustainability aspects such as recycling and labor rights. Those served as a limitation for this thesis. The recommendations are preliminary and require feasibility studies at the country level to assess economic, social, and environmental viability .

In short, the study argues that SADC can transition from a fragmented, import-reliant solar PV market toward a competitive regional value chain by strategically leveraging its mineral resources, fostering coordinated regional action, and adapting lessons from China’s developmental model.

Semiconductors are a cornerstone of modern technological development and a strategically vital global industry. Their production is characterized by a fragmented yet geographically concentrated global value chain (GVC), where latecomer economies often remain confined to lower-value segments. This thesis examines how the functional performance of Malaysia’s semiconductor innovation system interacted with GVC governance structures to shape its upgrading trajectory, offering lessons for latecomer economies seeking to advance in knowledge- and capital-intensive industries.

Adopting a longitudinal single-case study design, the research uses Malaysia’s semiconductor sector as the unit of analysis, covering the period from 1970 to the present. The analysis combines the functional Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework—assessing seven systemic functions—with an embedded GVC perspective to account for global governance regimes, upgrading pathways, and structural entry barriers. The study draws on secondary literature, policy archives, industry reports, and expert interviews to map the evolution of actors, networks, institutions, and systemic functions, alongside Malaysia’s positioning within the semiconductor GVC.

Findings reveal a dual character in Malaysia’s trajectory. Strong resource mobilization, positive cluster externalities, and foreign-led market formation enabled the country to secure a competitive position in assembly, testing, and packaging (ATP). However, systemic weaknesses in knowledge development, entrepreneurial experimentation, and legitimation, combined with the captive and hierarchical governance structures of upstream segments, limited upgrading into wafer fabrication and integrated circuit (IC) design. These structural dependencies, reinforced by high capital intensity, concentrated intellectual property, and tacit knowledge barriers, have locked Malaysia into a downstream specialisation.

The study concludes that latecomer economies in high-tech sectors must achieve both a balanced performance across systemic functions and strategic engagement with GVC governance dynamics. For policymakers, this implies integrating domestic innovation system strengthening with deliberate positioning in global production networks. The thesis contributes to the literature by integrating functional TIS analysis with GVC and latecomer industrialisation theory, offering a nuanced understanding of innovation system evolution in globally embedded, high-technology contexts.

As energy systems transition towards renewable sources, creating challenges for grid stability, household demand-side flexibility has become a cornerstone of modern policy. Dynamic electricity pricing is one of the most prominent tools for activating this flexibility, yet the robustness of its effects and the heterogeneity of responses across socioeconomic groups remain under-explored. The study addresses these gaps by analyzing data from a large-scale randomized controlled trial in Norway, conducted from December 2020 to March 2021, involving 3,746 households. The study replicates the fixed-effects panel-data model used by Hofmann and Lindberg (2024), to verify the average treatment effect of variable hourly pricing and extends it with interaction terms to test whether household income moderates price responsiveness. The replication analysis successfully reproduces the original findings, confirming a statistically significant average peak-hour demand reduction of 2.92% (0.085 kWh/h). The subsequent extension reveals a strong and systematic inverse relationship between household income and price elasticity, with low-income households significantly reducing peak consumption by 12.05% (0.221 kWh/h), compared to negligible responses from high-income households, particularly during high-price events for shorter time periods. These findings confirm that dynamic pricing effectively elicits demand response but is disproportionately driven by financially constrained households. To ensure an effective and equitable energy transition, policymakers must adopt segmented pricing strategies that account for socioeconomic differences. Limitations, including the Norway-specific context, suggest caution in generalizing these results.

Access to electricity in informal settlements such as Mathare, Nairobi, remains a critical challenge that extends beyond infrastructure limitations to include governance and stakeholder coordination issues. This study investigates how enhanced stakeholder collaboration and strategic alignment can support the integration of Mathare’s informal electricity network into a safer, more reliable, and legally regulated system. Motivated by the urgency of improving energy access in marginalised urban areas, the research focuses on aligning the interests of diverse actors, including community members, CBOs,
informal electricity suppliers, Kenya Power, and government agencies, which often operate in silos or conflicts.
A mixed methods approach was used, including 38 semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and direct observations, facilitated by collaboration with local CBOs. Thematic analysis was used to identify key barriers to stakeholder alignment and opportunities for participatory governance.
The findings reveal significant misalignments in stakeholder goals and a general absence of trust and dialogue among actors. Two integration approaches were analysed: Community-Based Energy Cooperatives (CBEC) and government-led ”Last Mile” expansion, the CBEC approach emerging as the most contextually viable option due to its emphasis on local ownership, accountability, and flexible governance.
The study concludes with a comprehensive roadmap and actionable policy recommendations aimed at Kenya Power. These include cooperative formation, tariff negotiations, technical training, and infrastructure implementation. By fostering collaborative governance structures and recognising the legitimacy of informal systems, the proposed roadmap contributes to building a safer and more reliable energy future in Mathare and similar urban settlements across Africa.

Sustainable and digital manufacturing is gaining traction. This shift has increased interest in
digital servitization, the strategic transformation process of industrial firms and their ecosystems.
Digital servitization integrates business model innovation, ecosystem orchestration, and
digital technologies. The process enables firms to integrate digital services into their business
models, taking advantage of technologies such as the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence,
and cloud computing to drive operational efficiency, resource optimization, and new revenue
streams.
Although additive manufacturing is widely recognized for its potential to enhance material
efficiency, reduce waste, and enable circular economy principles, its integration with digital
servitization remains underexplored. This study investigates how digital servitization contributes
to sustainable benefits in the manufacturing industry and how firms can structure its
adoption within an additive manufacturing ecosystem.
Using an exploratory single-case study approach, the research examines a laser powder bed
fusion additive manufacturing ecosystem orchestrated by a leading original equipment manufacturer.
The study draws on 25 in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, including industry
executives, supply chain actors, and independent experts. Thematic analysis, following the
Gioia methodology, identifies key enablers, barriers, and pathways to the adoption of digital
servitization in an industrial ecosystem.
The findings highlight that digital servitization fosters sustainable benefits by enabling business
model transformation, ecosystem-wide coordination, and digital technology integration. However,
its successful implementation requires a structured, staged approach in which business
model innovation precedes ecosystem orchestration and adoption of digital technology. The
study proposes a framework that guides firms through this transformation, emphasizing the
need for strategic alignment between these three pillars. In addition, it identified key challenges
such as the reluctance to share data, difficulties in demonstrating return on investment, and
limitations on interoperability.
This research contributes to the theoretical discourse by extending digital servitization research
beyond firm-level implementations and providing empirical validation of its role in enabling
sustainability in manufacturing ecosystems. It also offers actionable information for industrial
firms, policymakers, and technology providers on how to systematically adopt digital servitization
strategies to improve economic, environmental, and social sustainability. By bridging
the gap between theoretical frameworks and industrial implementation, this study advances
the understanding of how digital servitization can be effectively leveraged to drive sustainable
industrial transformation.

Population growth, economic development, and urbanisation are resulting in an increase in municipal solid waste, which is often landfilled in African countries. Landfill gas to energy (LFGE) projects utilise the methane emissions of landfills to generate energy. This could benefit African countries as it reduces waste and its associated emissions, and it improves energy supply. Although LFGE projects are already proven successful in other countries, they are not widely implemented in African countries.

This research investigated the reasons for the lacking diffusion and the conditions that will enable the emergence of LFGE projects in Africa. To this end, the innovation system surrounding LFGE projects, including the barriers to diffusion, was be described through the Technological Innovation System (TIS) framework. This research provides a conceptual model connecting the functional and the structural TIS approaches into a novel so called hybrid approach.

Through a literature review and exploratory expert interviews, 21 barriers to LFGE in Africa were identified. The barriers could be categorised into five categories: technical, institutional, organisational, social, and other. Eight barriers were incorporated into the conceptual model of the hybrid approach and converted into a system dynamics model, which was calibrated to South Africa. The results indicate that the wholesale price of electricity and the efficiency of the waste management system were the most important barriers to the diffusion of LFGE in Africa as they could individually cause diffusion or stagnation. These were followed by inaccessibility of the national electricity grid and public ownership of the landfill. The development of the national electricity grid and corruption turned out to have little to no impact on the development of the LFGE TIS. In terms of policies specific for LFGE, the model showed that an adequate feed-in tariff is the most impactful policy as it can create viability. This policy is followed by the obligation to generate electricity from LFGE as this can prevent the development of LFGE if implemented under the wrong circumstances. An obligation to buy the electricity from LFGE as well as a requirement to collect the LFG accelerate the diffusion, provided the most important barriers are overcome. Finally, the generation of carbon credits can partially compensate a low purchase price, which could create viability of LFGE in cases that would normally stagnate. Nevertheless, this effect is only temporary as the generation of carbon credits is not possible anymore once LFGE is considered to be the common practice in a country.

The results were synthesised into a flowchart indicating the different pathways to diffusion. This flowchart can be used by project developers to assess different countries on their LFGE potential. Additionally, the assessment of the institutional building block allows policymakers to effectively implement policies that enhance the diffusion of LFGE.

This thesis investigates the commercialization of next-generation nuclear fission technologies, focusing on the barriers, strategies, and timelines necessary for their deployment. With the growing need for clean and reliable energy, nuclear fission offers a low-carbon solution, but its commercialization is challenged by regulatory, financial, and technological hurdles. The research uses a dual-method approach, combining desk research and expert interviews. Through desk research, commercialization timelines of 10 key companies developing next-generation nuclear reactors were mapped. These companies are at different stages, ranging from ideation to prototyping, with varying timelines influenced by strategic partnerships, regulatory approvals, and technological progress.

The expert interviews reveal significant barriers to commercialization, including lengthy regulatory approval processes, high upfront costs, and public skepticism surrounding nuclear technology. Financial constraints, especially the difficulty in attracting investment due to long payback periods, were noted as major impediments. Experts also highlighted the need for technological innovation, particularly in materials testing and reactor designs, to meet stringent safety standards.

In response to these challenges, the thesis identifies strategies such as early engagement with regulatory bodies, diversification of funding sources, and open communication to address public concerns. Technological advancements, such as modular reactor designs and improved safety features, are critical to overcoming these hurdles. By combining the insights from commercialization timelines and expert interviews, this study offers recommendations to accelerate the commercialization process, emphasizing the need for policy support, innovative financial models, and continuous technological development. Nuclear fission remains a promising solution to the global energy crisis, but coordinated efforts are required to unlock its full potential.

This thesis addresses the challenge of end-of-life (EOL) photovoltaic (PV) panel waste management in India through circular innovation strategies. With PV waste estimated to reach 200,000 metric tonnes by 2030, there have been serious concerns about the environment and resource depletion. As a result, this research investigates the key drivers and barriers to circular innovation in the Indian PV industry, proposing niche strategies to overcome them. The Technological Innovation System (TIS) framework for circular innovation is used to look at these factors from the point-of-no-return recycling of PV panels. Based on literature reviews and industrial stakeholder interviews, the primary drivers and barriers to the circular innovation of PV panels are identified, as well as their targeted niche strategies to overcome these obstacles. The findings are used to adapt the TIS framework for the case of the circular innovation of EOL PV panels, with a geographic focus on India. The results extract important lessons for decision-makers and industrial actors alike by underscoring the urgency of creating regulatory frameworks that enable circular innovation and provide concrete measures to foster a sustainable solar industry in India.

Latin America faces significant environmental and socio-economic challenges due to its predominant "extract, transform, and dispose" economic model. The Circular Economy (CE) offers a crucial alternative by focusing on sustainability through rethinking and redesigning production processes to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency. Within this framework, Circular Innovations (CIs) play a vital role in promoting sustainable practices. This research seeks to adapt the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework to better identify and overcome barriers to CIs in Latin America. The study began with a comprehensive literature review, which provided a foundation for adapting the TIS framework to both the principles of circularity and the specific context of Latin America. This adapted framework was then applied through case studies in the region, offering a practical examination of the challenges and opportunities for CE in Latin America. The research synthesized insights from literature, case studies, and expert interviews to develop definitions of CE and CIs that are tailored to the Latin American context. The Circular Economy in Latin America is defined as the process of rethinking and redesigning production and consumption systems to minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency. This approach emphasizes waste management, recycling, and the transformation of waste into valuable resources throughout the entire lifecycle of products and services, aiming to achieve sustainability through regulatory alignment, technological innovation, and societal engagement. Circular Innovations are defined as innovations that align with these principles, focusing on waste minimization, resource efficiency, and sustainability. The application of the adapted TIS framework revealed several significant barriers to the diffusion of CIs in Latin America. These include challenges in scaling up circular production processes efficiently, inefficiencies in transportation and distribution networks, and a significant lack of customer awareness and understanding of circular economy products. Additionally, there is a low willingness to pay for sustainable products, exacerbated by the lack of alignment in regulatory frameworks and inconsistent environmental laws. The framework also highlighted issues such as unclear and overly stringent regulatory requirements, the absence of standardized norms, competitive pricing challenges, and a lack of supportive infrastructure and incentives for circular economy initiatives. To address these barriers, the research developed a series of niche strategies tailored to the specific challenges identified in the Latin American context. These strategies include the Demo, Experiment, and Develop Niche Strategy, which focuses on creating experimental spaces for innovation; the Subsidized Niche Strategy, aimed at providing financial support to emerging circular innovations; and the Geographic Niche Strategy, which targets specific regions with unique challenges and opportunities. Other strategies include the Educate Niche Strategy, which emphasizes the importance of raising awareness and knowledge among consumers and policymakers; the Top Niche Strategy, which focuses on leveraging high-impact innovations; and the Policy Advocacy Strategy, which involves engaging with regulatory bodies to align policies with circular economy goals. These strategies were derived from the adapted TIS framework by systematically analyzing how various influencing conditions affect the framework’s building blocks. The connection between these influencing conditions and the identified barriers provided a clear pathway for developing strategies that are both targeted and effective. The study highlights the critical role of niche strategies in promoting circularity in Latin America, ensuring that circular innovations can achieve large-scale impact and contribute significantly to sustainable development in the region.

Air transport, encompassing both passenger and cargo airplanes, is the second-largest energy consumer in the transportation sector, following road vehicles. The passenger sector has seen rapid expansion in recent years, with demand expected to double by 2040. Air cargo, which surged during the pandemic, is also experiencing increasing growth due to e-commerce and express logistics. Although frequent flying significantly boosts global connectivity and economic development, it also results in increasing carbon emissions.
Despite technological improvements making current aircraft 80% more fuel-efficient than those from the 1960s, aviation remains a significant environmental concern, responsible for around 4% of global CO2 emissions. The industry’s reliance on fossil-based jet fuel poses challenges for decarbonization, especially as carbon emissions at high altitudes have a substantial atmospheric impact.
Nevertheless, pressure to mitigate climate change is rising. The European Green Deal aims for climate neutrality by 2050, pushing the aviation industry towards net-zero carbon emissions.
Given that the current kerosene-based propulsion system is the primary source for carbon emissions, a radical change in propulsion technologies is urgently needed to achieve zero-carbon-emission flying by 2050. Among the technologies being explored, hydrogen propulsion is identified as a promising alternative for medium-range flights, making it particularly suitable for European air transport. Therefore, this master thesis focuses on the transition to hydrogen propulsion as a solution to significantly reduce aviation’s carbon footprint.
This study aims to understand how hydrogen propulsion can aid in decarbonizing air transport by identifying key factors influencing its adoption and exploring a strategic pathway for implementation.
The Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework served as the theoretical foundation for analyzing the transition, focusing on a technological niche, the socio-technical regime, and landscape pressures. This framework aids in the understanding that energy transitions often start in niches, highlighting hydrogen propulsion as a potential technological niche to significantly reduce carbon emissions in aviation.
Moreover, this study intended to investigate the idea of introducing hydrogen-powered technology in a specific aviation market niche to accelerate the transition. The air freight sector was examined for its potential to be perceived as a safer market for the implementation of a new technology compared to a direct application in passenger aviation. Additionally, the air cargo sector was found to be an underexplored market in the development of sustainable aviation technological solutions, resulting in a
significant knowledge gap in both scientific literature and industry applications. Following a qualitative approach, an extensive literature review and eleven interviews were conducted with aviation experts from academia, industry, and government. The interviews aimed to gather
insights on the drivers and barriers for hydrogen adoption in aviation, as well as on the potential of air cargo. The questions for the experts were formulated according to different levels of the MLP framework to drive the discussions. Firstly, at the niche level, technical aspects on hydrogen technology and air cargo were addressed. Secondly, the necessary conditions for hydrogen-regime transition were discussed across five different dimensions. Thirdly, global events in the aviation landscape that influence the adoption of hydrogen were specified. The wide variety of insights provided by the experts led to the classification of drivers and barriers into four main areas: technological, political, economic, and societal. Since hydrogen technology is still in the early experimental phase, a greater number of
technological challenges were identified compared to the other areas. Results showed diverse technological drivers including hydrogen’s clean production using renewable sources, its high gravimetric energy density, and its zero-carbon emissions during flight. However, technical barriers such as low volumetric energy density, the need for a complete overhaul of the existing aviation ecosystem, and challenges in hydrogen logistics and storage were noted. Politically, support for hydrogen adoption is driven by climate commitments and the potential for energy independence, but kerosene taxation and new regulations are needed. Economically, fluctuating fossil fuel prices and job creation are positive factors, but high initial R&D and infrastructure costs pose substantial challenges. Moreover, societal perception plays a crucial
role in the adoption of hydrogen technology. Public support is influenced by the environmental benefits of hydrogen-powered aviation, but safety concerns and a lack of understanding about hydrogen technology necessitate extensive public education and transparent communication efforts. Although the potential of hydrogen in aviation still needs to be proven, targeting the cargo sector is viewed as a smart move to demonstrate feasibility and build acceptance. Advantages of implementing hydrogen in air cargo include greater flexibility in technology integration due to simpler cabin systems and expertise in handling hazardous materials. Cargo aircraft can optimize tank placement without passenger accommodation constraints and benefit from centralized operations at key hubs, requiring less extensive infrastructure. Socially, it offers a low-exposure environment for technology testing, and economically, centralized hubs reduce costs, with potential market opportunities for ”green” military freighters. Nonetheless, the air freight sector may encounter difficulties in adopting hydrogen technology due to less public pressure for sustainable solutions, weaker economic incentives, and the challenge of justifying infrastructure costs, given the lower flight frequency and smaller market size compared to passenger aviation. This thesis is the first to explore the intersection of hydrogen-powered technology, socio-technical transitions, and the air cargo sector. It provides a comprehensive analysis by integrating technical, political, societal, and economic perspectives, highlighting the air cargo sector as a promising niche for early adoption. The theoretical framework offers insights into the challenges and opportunities in transitioning to hydrogen propulsion, with broader implications for other high-emission sectors seeking sustainable innovations. Based on the findings of this research, several recommendations were made to facilitate the transition to hydrogen-powered aircraft. Firstly, governments should implement policies and regulations that incentivize the adoption of hydrogen technology, such as kerosene taxation and CO2 restrictions on flights. Secondly, public education campaigns are necessary to improve societal perception and knowledge on hydrogen-powered aviation. Thirdly, collaboration with other industries working on hydrogen is essential to create a supportive ecosystem for hydrogen technology. Finally, focusing on the
air freight sector as a testing ground for hydrogen technology will help build acceptance and pave the way for its introduction into passenger aviation. Future research should focus on several key areas such as incorporating quantitative analyses to assess the economic viability and environmental impact of hydrogen-powered aircraft, expanding the scope of interviews to include diverse geographical regions, and integrating other research methods like case studies and surveys. Additionally, developing policy frameworks to support large-scale adoption and exploring other market niches, such as military and unmanned aircraft systems, are crucial for scaling hydrogen technology in aviation.

This work explores of the status of the Technological Innovation System for vehicle-to-grid technology in the UK and derivates relevant strategies that policymakers and companies can use in order to foster its technological adoption.

Aviation is one of the fastest-growing sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and continues to expand its emission footprint due to the growth of the global middle class and expanding international trade. Air cargo in particular is expected to grow rapidly over the next three decades at 4.1% globally, even outpacing expected growth rates for passenger air traffic. Abating emissions in aviation, however, is extremely challenging, making aviation a so-called hard-to-abate industry. Hard-to-abate industries typically have high energy consumption and limited options for decarbonization without substantial technological advancements or changes in industrial processes. Aviation is a hard-to-abate industry due to its strict operational requirements, limited potential for improvements to incumbent technologies, complex infrastructural requirements, a challenging market environment that leads to economic constraints, and the slow turnover of aircraft. Meanwhile, the importance of air cargo for the global economy is enormous because approximately 20% of international trade by value is transported by air while accounting for less than 1% by volume. Therefore, sensible decarbonisation strategies have to be outlined that preserve air cargo in its function as a catalyst for prosperity around the globe. To achieve the aviation industry’s net-zero emissions goal by 2050 the only feasible option for decarbonisation is the large-scale adoption of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs). SAF is a type of jet fuel that can be produced from biomass or electricity, reduces carbon emissions by up to 80% and has similar physical properties to conventional jet fuel, enabling its use in existing aircraft without modifications. Yet to date, adoption of SAF is extremely low at under 1% of total fuel consumption globally. The main barriers to large-scale diffusion of SAF are high production costs compared to conventional jet fuel and a lack of investments in new production facilities, leading to low availability of SAF. Nonetheless, policymakers and key industry actors are making tremendous efforts to drive the quick and reliable adoption of SAF. The USA, for instance, massively incentivises the domestic production of SAF through tax breaks as part of the ”Inflation Reduction Act”. Furthermore, the EU passed the ”RefuelEU Aviation Act” in the fall of 2023, mandating the increased use of SAF within the aviation sector. The act sets clear targets for SAF uptake, requiring that airlines use at least 2% SAF by 2025, increasing to 6% by 2030, and reaching 70% by 2050. Similarly, other countries like the UK, Norway, Singapore, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, Turkey and Brazil have implemented or are expected to implement a SAF quota this decade. Moreover, large private corporations are dedicated to reducing their indirect emissions from their supply chain, referred to as scope 3 emissions. This commitment is driving significant demand for SAF, as businesses seek to lower their carbon footprint from transportation and logistics to meet stringent sustainability targets. While mandated or voluntary demand for SAF will inevitably increase the adoption of SAF in the near term, for the foreseeable future the price premium of SAF over conventional jet fuel will remain a major concern for all value chain members. Airlines, for example, are oftentimes unable to recoup the additional costs of SAF through the commercialisation of sustainable transportation products. Since cargo airlines are the focal link of the air cargo value chain, connecting the upstream segment, e.g. OEMs and airports, with the downstream segment, e.g. freight distributors, changes to one actor of the air cargo value chain will create follow-up effects on adjacent actors. Consequently, the current business models of all air cargo value chain members, including their respective revenue streams, value propositions and cost structures, are called into question. This leads to the following research question: How does the use of SAF impact companies’ business models across the air cargo industry value chain? To address the research question a two-pronged research approach was taken. Initially, a conceptual model was developed based on a modified version of the ”Business Model Canvas” by Osterwalder and Pigneur (2010) to dissect the rather abstract construct of a business model. This conceptual mode was then used to analyse the current business model of the most relevant air cargo value chain actors, e.g. aircraft manufacturers, airports, cargo airlines and freight distributors, and to hypothesise potenitial changes to these caused by the large-scale adoption of SAF. Subsequently, ten semi-structured interviews assessed industry experts’ perceptions on this topic to enrich the understanding of SAF’s impact on air cargo. The findings suggest that the impacts on investigated business models can be roughly divided into two groups. On the one hand aircraft manufacturers and airports are not directly affected by the adoption of SAF in air cargo. Therefore these actors function as facilitators and coordinators for the diffusion of SAF. Cargo airlines and freight distributors are expected to experience fundamental changes to their business model caused by SAF. These actors must quickly reevaluate their business model to align with the emerging sustainability standards and regulations. As mentioned above, aircraft manufacturers and airports are expected to experience negligible or minor impacts on their cost structures and revenue streams due to the adoption of SAF in air cargo. Airports currently do not own or operate fuelling facilities. This responsibility is outsourced to energy companies such as BP and Shell, which acquire multi-year concessions from airports to operate these facilities. Consequently, airports show little interest in investing in SAF production plants due to the associated risks, making additional revenues from SAF unlikely. Similarly, aircraft manufacturers do not anticipate significant revenue gains from producing aircraft with improved SAF blending certifications. This is primarily because OEMs are already operating at maximum production capacity and the industry’s focus is on producing as many new aircraft as possible to reduce emissions. Additionally, aircraft manufacturers will not experience changes to their cost structures, as existing technological knowledge can be leveraged without the need for new developments. This allows them to continue their operations without incurring extra costs related to SAF integration. Nonetheless, aircraft manufacturers’ and airports’ role as coordinators for the adoption of SAF requires changes to other building blocks of their respective business models such as partner networks and key activities to maintain business model consistency. For aircraft manufacturers, this means adding organizations involved in the production and certification of SAF to their partner network. Additionally, new key activities for aircraft manufacturers include orchestrating the scale-up of SAF production and facilitating and coordinating SAF adoption to avoid technological disruption. For airports, it involves positioning themselves strategically within the new SAF value chain to drive adoption advantageously. Additionally, airports need to rethink their customer relationships with airlines to create and sustain demand for SAF from airlines which will then attract investments in SAF infrastructure and production. Furthermore, SAF offers a unique opportunity for differentiation. Airports can use their well-established relationships with important stakeholders to advocate for SAF production in close proximity to the airport or analogue SAF transportation infrastructure. This step will enhance the airport’s value proposition by offering airlines the possibility to fuel large quantities of SAF. Aircraft manufacturers on the other hand can use higher SAF blending certification for their aircraft models to gain an advantage over competitors and improve their value proposition. Cargo airlines and freight distributors are expected to experience tremendous changes to their cost structure caused by consistently higher prices for SAF in the long term. This circumstance presumes higher revenue streams to maintain their business models’ financial viability. The ability to generate higher revenues is contingent upon the value proposition provided by cargo airlines and freight distributors. Therefore, the effective commercialization of sustainable transportation services will become a key activity for these companies. Promising approaches to the commercialisation of SAF include the ability for cargo owners to claim scope 3 emissions reductions based on the use of SAF, and the ability to offer SAF as part of a wider business case where sustainable transport is offered as an added value to the consumer purchasing a specific product. To conduct these measures the industry requires standardised carbon accounting rules to claim emissions reduction, a comprehensive approach to SAF certificate trading to track the flow of SAF and emissions across the value chain, and a reliable legal framework that allows companies to communicate the benefits of SAF to the consumer without the risk of being accused of greenwashing. Achieving this will require cargo airlines and freight distributors to expand their partner network to include new collaborators. For example, organizations that set standards for carbon accounting should be integrated. Additionally, developing a SAF certificate trading system with the necessary partners in the fuel supply chain is essential. Ultimately, these measures will significantly enhance the value proposition. Nonetheless, it has to be noted that not all cargo owners yet demonstrate a sufficient willingness to pay for sustainability. Therefore, close customer relationships and a comprehensive but concise communication of the benefits of SAF will become pivotal for cargo airlines and freight distributors. To identify lead customers for the commercialisation of SAF customer segmentation will be conducted along novel criteria. Examples of these are a cargo owner’s emphasis on emissions reduction (in this case a customer’s adherence to the SBT initiative is usually a good proxy), a fixation on high-margin industries that are able to pay a premium for SAF (e.g. the luxury goods or pharmaceuticals sector), and a focus on industries that are close to the consumer and are therefore able to communicate sustainability as an added value (e.g. the retail or apparel sector). Lastly, amid the significant uncertainty surrounding the adoption of emerging technologies like SAF, effective risk management will be pivotal. Especially demand, price, policy and technology risks require careful consideration, positioning effective risk management as a second key activity. Despite these changes, the early and decisive adoption of SAF by cargo airlines and freight distributors presents numerous opportunities. The complexity of SAF certificate trading and carbon accounting, among other aspects, means that the successful commercialization of SAF will be the result of a long learning process. To avoid falling behind, companies must set out today to capitalise on the rapidly growing market for sustainable transportation services. Furthermore, the decarbonisation of aviation through the use of SAF presents a unique opportunity to showcase that the aviation industry is able to address its problems effectively, creating social and political acceptance for future industry growth in the process. This thesis is the first study to investigate the intersection of SAF, business model transformation, and air cargo. Beyond its contribution to research, the results also have significant practical implications. The anticipated cost increases, coupled with the prevalent inability to recoup these additional expenses through the successful commercialization of sustainable transportation services, pose a substantial risk to the viability of cargo airlines’ and freight distributors’ business models. Mandated SAF quotas in the EU, which can lead to competitive distortions between airlines and freight distributors from different geographic regions, are a particular concern. The insights from this study can help companies navigate these emerging risks by identifying the areas of their business models most impacted. To address potential risks, companies must first be aware of their existence and pinpoint where they occur. Now that an awareness of the aforementioned potentially negative impacts is created, companies can carry out an as-is analysis of the relevant areas. Additionally, this study advocates for a shift in the conversation around SAF. Instead of viewing SAF as a cost burden, it suggests recognising the early adoption of SAF as an opportunity to gain valuable experience in the commercialization of sustainable transportation solutions, especially in light of growing public pressure for decarbonization. This opportunistic view on SAF can help to create and sustain company internal support for early investments in SAF. Furthermore, the study’s results highlight the importance of aircraft manufacturers and airports as facilitators for the adoption of SAF. This is contrary to the prevailing conviction that the actors can not shape the transition. Being aware of this will help aircraft manufacturer and airports to re-evaluate their corporate strategy, potentially strengthening their business models’ resilience and flexibility. In conclusion, the research reveals that the adoption of SAF significantly impacts the business models of companies across the air cargo industry value chain. Aircraft manufacturers and airports, playing coordinative roles, experience minimal direct effects on their cost structures and revenue streams. Instead, their contribution lies in facilitating the diffusion of SAF by coordinating between new and existing partners. In contrast, cargo airlines and freight distributors face substantial changes due to the higher costs associated with SAF. These companies must adapt their business models to effectively commercialise sustainable transportation services, which includes developing robust carbon accounting practices, SAF certificate trading systems and strong customer relationships focused on sustainability. The findings indicate that proactive adjustments to business models, focusing on the commercialization of sustainability to allocate the additional costs of SAF across the value chain, will be essential for cargo airlines and freight distributors to sustain financially viable and globally competitive business models. The study also emphasises the necessity for these actors to view SAF adoption as an opportunity rather than a burden, enabling them to gain valuable experience and lead in the sustainable air cargo market. This shift in perspective, combined with necessary strategic changes in partner networks and key activities, can help mitigate risks and leverage the growing demand for sustainable transportation. By addressing these challenges proactively, companies can position themselves advantageously in an increasingly environmentally conscious air cargo market.

This study assesses the socioeconomic feasibility of an integrated waste tyre pyrolysis and electricity generation system in the Gauteng region of South Africa. The primary aim of the research is to address two of South Africa’s challenges, waste tyre management and electricity generation shortages, by integrating waste tyre pyrolysis with a gas turbine. This research is in direct response to the call for further research into the applicability of pyrolysis from the South African government. Gauteng is a highly populated and economically significant province, which provides a crucial case study for this system due to its substantial waste tyre stockpiles, built-up infrastructure, dense population, and high electricity demand.

The designed system involves the pyrolysis of waste tyres to produce char and oils, which are then used to generate electricity through an external gas turbine. This integrated approach highlights the applicability of using pyrolysis outputs for electricity generation, bypassing the need for uncertain secondary markets for pyrolysis products. The system design relies on the availability of waste tyres, regulatory considerations, and market demands for electricity, sizing the system first for the desired electricity generation capacity and fitting the pyrolysis size to meet the demands for electricity generation.

The economic analysis shows that the combined system is a highly feasible solution, with a Net Present Value (NPV) of approximately R4.85 billion and a payback time of 5.4 years, building a solid investment case. The Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCOE) is calculated at 0.12 R/kWh, making the system more cost-effective than current electricity generation methods in South Africa under the national generation company. The economic model’s outlook and results are supported by sensitivity analyses, which indicate the system remains feasible under changing waste tyre and electricity prices, even without government subsidies, a critical condition to eligibility for the support schemes.

The Social Cost-Benefit Analysis (SCBA) reveals a range of significant societal benefits that the integrated system provides. These include job creation, improved power quality, and increased national economic output through reduced load shedding. The system’s Social Net Present Value (SNPV) is strongly positive at R8.56 billion, with significant social benefits across various different sectors. Further, the results highlight the benefits of pyrolysis for waste tyre management over the direct use of tyres in coal power plants, making a clear case to the government regarding the processing method to pursue. Significantly, these benefits outweigh the additional carbon emissions from the increased electricity generation capacity and the increased tax burden of the subsidies to the processing system. Not all of the societal benefits are evident in the SCBA; the system also plays a role in public health improvements and a reduction in road accidents by addressing the waste tyre stockpile issue. These benefits further highlight the potentially significant gains for society following implementation.

The study concludes that the proposed system is a socio-economically feasible solution for Gauteng’s waste tyre and electricity challenges. And a potential driving force for South Africa’s energy landscape transition, paving the way for renewable energy systems to connect to the grid en masse through the added grid stability. Its positive economic indicators and net societal benefits make it a promising candidate for addressing South Africa’s energy transition and waste tyre management goals, meeting all of the government’s objectives of the Industry Waste Management Plan and fitting into the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Role. The study paves the way for future research to focus on environmental impacts, changing system assumptions and long-term electricity grid impacts.

The global transportation sector's heavy reliance on fossil fuels poses significant environmental challenges. In response, many countries, including Indonesia, are exploring sustainable alternatives like electric vehicles (EVs). With abundant nickel reserves, Indonesia aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the adoption of EVs, particularly electric motorcycles, under initiatives such as the Battery-Based Electric Vehicle Acceleration Program. Despite ambitious targets of 2.5 million electric motorcycles by 2025 and 13 million by 2030, the current population stands at 99,594 units, highlighting significant adoption challenges.

This thesis explores the development and implementation of the e-motorcycle battery swap business in Indonesia, employing Circular Technological Innovation System (TIS) Framework and Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) to identify and prioritize barriers. The study identifies 33 barriers and proposes a four-level hierarchical strategy to address these issues. Key strategies include engaging businesses during political transitions, forming a unified consortium of battery manufacturers and e-motorcycle providers, and advocating for regulatory changes.

The findings, validated by experts, emphasize the importance of addressing lower-level barriers to create a conducive environment for the widespread adoption of battery swap systems. The study provides a comprehensive framework to facilitate the growth of the e-motorcycle battery swap industry in Indonesia, contributing to the country’s sustainable transportation goals.

The aviation sector, responsible for approximately 2% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, is projected to grow 4-6 times by 2050, conflicting with the European Union’s Green Deal target of achieving net-zero emissions by the same year. While aircraft electrification offers a promising solution, its application is largely limited to short-haul flights due to range and weight limitations. Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) emerges as a compelling alternative for long-haul operations, as it is compatible with both existing infrastructure and can be blended with fossil fuels. Currently, Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) is the predominant pathway for producing SAF. There remains a significant supply gap for SAF, emphasising the need to scale up production and explore alternative technologies. This thesis evaluates the potential of hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) and fast pyrolysis (FP) to address this supply gap.

The research objective is to compare HTL and FP with HEFA. A literature review identified three main knowledge gaps: (1) a lack of studies on the social impacts of HTL and FP, (2) the absence of stakeholder involvement in evaluating these technologies, and (3) the need for updated data integration to effectively compare HTL and FP with established SAF technologies like HEFA. This study addresses these gaps using a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) to provide a holistic evaluation across a multi-temporal timescale while considering diverse stakeholder perspectives.

The study employed a four-phase methodology. The first phase began with the identification of stakeholders through desk research. The second phase involved establishing the criteria for the MCA via a literature review focusing on four main dimensions: environmental (Global Warming Potential and use of by-products), economic (capital expenditure, operating expenditure, and feedstock price), technical (technology readiness level and efficiency), and social (safety and social impacts related to feedstock use). The stakeholders assigned the weightings of each criterion relative to the others during structured interviews using the Best-Worst Method (BWM). In the third phase, each technology was assessed against the established criteria through detailed analysis using specific methods. Based on the findings of the analysis, SAF experts assigned performance scores to each technology per criterion. Finally, in the fourth phase, the criteria and their weightings, along with the performance scores, were integrated to calculate a final weighted MCA score for each technology. This resulted in a final ranking of the technologies based on their overall MCA scores for each stakeholder.

HTL and FP are potential alternatives to the HEFA pathway to produce SAF, each with different advantages and disadvantages. Technically and economically, HEFA currently outperforms due to its maturity and lower costs. At the same time, HTL and FP offer potential environmental and social benefits, particularly in terms of the kind of feedstocks used and the possibilities of by-product valorisation. The preference for each technology varies between stakeholders, indicating the need for a balanced approach that integrates multiple perspectives in SAF implementation decision-making. This research provides actionable insights for advancing SAF technologies and supports the broader goal of achieving sustainable aviation.

This master's thesis examines the effects of business model innovation and competitive strategies on the success of high-tech startups in the Netherlands. Understanding how high-tech startups can improve their performance and compete successfully is of utmost relevance given the increasing importance of technology entrepreneurship and the emergence of high-tech startups. High-tech businesses frequently fail within the first 18 months despite their promise; thus, it is necessary to identify techniques that encourage their expansion and success. Considering its significance in Europe and its ability to promote international entrepreneurship, this study concentrates on the Dutch high-tech startup ecosystem. By examining the interaction between business models, competitive strategies, and startup performance, the study seeks to fill a gap in the body of existing literature. The central research question, "What is the influence of competitive strategies and business model innovation on the performance of high-tech start-ups in the Netherlands?" serves as the focus of this study.

The study employs a quantitative research approach to gather insights from high-tech businesses established between 2017 and 2020. Data is meticulously collected from high-tech startups in the Netherlands, utilizing a meticulously crafted survey questionnaire. This comprehensive analysis aims to unravel the intricate dynamics between business model innovation and competitive strategies, shedding light on pivotal performance variables such as number of employees and revenue, pivotal indicators of startup growth. Through rigorous statistical analysis performed on a sample of 49 high-tech startups, the study unveils a noteworthy positive correlation between the interaction of business model novelty and cost-leadership strategy with enhanced startup performance, particularly in terms of full-time employees. However, other direct and interactional relationships failed to yield significance concerning the performance variables. Consequently, the study delves into discerning the prevalent business models and preferred competitive strategies within the Dutch high-tech startup ecosystem. Further, despite the significant insights garnered, this research acknowledges certain limitations, including sample size constraints, sampling methodology, and primarily the questions in the survey questionnaire design, which may have influenced the outcomes of the research study.

The results of this study have ramifications for practitioners as well as scholars. By providing insights into the intricate interactions between business models, competitive strategies, and startup performance, it adds to the body of academic literature on strategic management and entrepreneurship. The research also provides important insights from high-tech startups on their decision-making to enhance their performance with developing market trends. The research helps business owners make informed decisions that promote growth, profitability, and market competitiveness by identifying effective combinations of business models and strategies. Delving into these dynamics, this research not only enriches the academic understanding of entrepreneurship but also provides valuable insights with practical implications. Through its rigorous analysis and findings, this thesis aims to equip high-tech startups with the knowledge and strategies needed to succeed in today's dynamic world. In conclusion, this master's thesis provides a thorough examination of the complex linkages between business model innovation, competitive strategies, and the performance outcomes of Dutch high-tech startups.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is endowed with vast reserves of cobalt, a metal playing a very substantial role in the global energy transition. As the world shifts towards sustainable energy solutions, particularly through the electrification of transport, the demand for key minerals like cobalt and lithium is rising. This presents a unique opportunity for the DRC to elevate its position within the global battery value chain (GBVC). However, despite its rich mineral resources, the DRC’s current role remains limited primarily to raw material exports, leaving significant space for growth in high value-added activities.

This thesis explores the research question: “Can the DRC leverage its abundant cobalt resources to upgrade in the battery value chain?”. The study aims to bridge the knowledge gap by assessing the potential of the country to upgrade within the chain. This is done by identifying challenges that the DRC faces and exploring opportunities for upgrading within the value chain.

The research is structured around several sub-research questions that examine the global landscape and governance of the battery value chain, the DRC's current integration, and both the challenges and opportunities for future upgrading. The primary analytical tool employed is the Global Value Chain (GVC) framework, which provides a structured methodology to assess the complex network between the companies and the economic activities that are executed throughout the world. By applying this framework, the study identifies where value is created within the battery value chain and how the DRC can move towards higher-value activities.

In summary, the opportunity identified for the DRC is in the upstream sector of the battery value chain and more particularly in the refining stage. Nevertheless, the outcome is not encouraging for the DRC due to substantial barriers that the country must overcome. The country faces deficits in infrastructure, especially in energy and transportation systems, which rise operational expenditures. This in conjunction with the political instability has a negative implication on the attractiveness of the DRC as an investment environment, so country ‘s progress is hindered. Furthermore, the limited control that local institutions have over cobalt mines does not give the chance to the DRC to take strategic decisions that are beneficial for the development of country ‘s capabilities. In addition, transparency and human rights problems within the mining sector make investors more reluctant due to the need in the market for compliance with international ESG standards.

Substantial improvements in the DRC ‘s investment environment are necessary to strengthen country ‘s position in the global battery industry, so some recommendations for both government policies and corporate strategies are made. Local institutions should build more strategic collaborations with companies in other countries of African Union that have the capacity to support refining activities. At the same time, they must increase their awareness for international standards and start applying them in order to become more trusted partners globally. Policy recommendations from the government are also essential , including financial incentives for foreign investors and improvements in the judicial system. In this way, the DRC can create a more competitive environment in the refining segment of battery value chain and may have more chances for upgrading.