The environmental impact of building materials, expressed as embodied carbon (EC) or, in the Dutch context, through the MilieuPrestatie Gebouwen (MPG) indicator, is increasingly governed by regulatory standards and sustainability objectives. However, current assessment tools for measuring embodied carbon are typically used as late-stage compliance checks, rather than being integrated into the iterative design process of a new project. Moreover, publicly accessible data on whole-building environmental impact is scarce, limiting the ability to benchmark and contextualize new designs.
This research proposes a computational tool that facilitates early-stage environmental impact assessment of building materials, integrating three calculation methodologies: Embodied Carbon, MilieuPrestatie Gebouwen, and a circularity-informed indicator (EC+). The EC+ indicator extends conventional EC assessment by incor-porating a limited set of circularity factors: biogenic carbon storage, material replacements, and potential end-of-life benefits.
Unlike conventional tools that rely on the assessment of individual materials, the developed framework oper-ates at the level of elements. An element can be defined as a predefined assembly of one or more building materials arranged in functional layers, corresponding to a specific building part (such as: a floor, a roof or an external or interior wall). In the context of this research, an element was subdivided into three compo-nents, which were termed ’sub-elements’. These sub-elements are categorised as top, structural, or bottom. Sub-elements are manually composed from individual materials to ensure structurally realistic and technically robust assemblies. Complete elements are generated from one top, one structural, and one bottom sub-element in an automated process designed to ensure efficiency and consistency. This process is visualized in figure 1.

Assessing environmental performance at the element level offers significant advantages. It improves impact completeness by including all functional layers, enables consistent integration of circularity parameters such as modularity and connection type, and supports early-stage evaluation even when full material compositions are not yet available. Additionally, it allows physical, structural and circularity-related properties to be assigned to each element. This enables to filter out undesired configurations later in the process, based on project specific requirements.
The tool is furthermore supported by a structured element database, the purpose of which is to facilitate the storage of the aforementioned data. This enhances assessment efficiency and accuracy, and supports early-stage evaluation and cross-project data reuse by preserving validated elements.
This research also developed a methodology to generate synthetic whole building impact data. Elements, sorted by building part, are combined into complete building configurations (see figure 1). All valid combinations tions between elements are made according to the project building part ratio and user requirements, enabling the calculation of environmental impact values for a large number of hypothetical buildings. This synthetic dataset forms a robust reference against which new building designs can be evaluated and contextualised.
The research was conducted using a research-through-design methodology, integrating academic principles with practical industry requirements. The dataflow of the tool consists of three modules: input, process and output (see figure 2). It utilises minimal early design inputs, such as gross floor area and material categories, to estimate whole-building environmental impact values. The process module of the tool was developed in Grasshopper, with supplementary support from Excel and Power BI, enabling real-time calculation, data structuring and saving, visualisation, and live performance feedback.

The validation process confirmed that the tool performs with high accuracy and meets the key requirements defined at the outset of the research. These requirements were initially established and subsequently refined through a thorough review of the relevant literature and current practices in the building sector.
The developed tool offers a reliable and extensible foundation for translating sustainability ambitions and regulatory obligations into practical application by embedding environmental impact feedback into early-stage workflows. This integration supports iterative decision-making and encourages the use of low-carbon and more circular materials before critical design decisions are finalised. The tool’s real-time feedback functionality allows users to explore impact variation under project input uncertainty.
Although the tool was developed with the involvement of different stakeholders, it has not yet been applied in a real-world design process. Consequently, its impact on design outcomes remains to be empirically validated.

In response to increasingly extreme summer heat driven by global warming and the urban heat island effect, reducing energy consumption in architecture has become a critical concern in Taiwanese design practice. At the same time, decades of over-reliance on reinforced concrete as a universal solution have shaped the architectural industry into one that resists innovation, as well as filling the urban landscape with concrete structures that are ill-suited to present climatic conditions and agenda.

This thematic research investigates the physical, practical, and cultural challenges facing sustainable building design in Taiwan, through the means of thermal climate simulation study, survey with architectural practitioners, and the analysis of the historical development of Taiwan’s architectural industry.

Building upon the insights gained from this research, the design phase proposes a climate-responsive renovation strategy for a typical concrete high-rise apartment building in Taipei. The design emphasizes low-cost, low-tech interventions with minimal structural modification and additions, focusing on passive cooling strategies. The core principle of the design process is to significantly improve the natural ventilation schemes throughout the building by converting existing spaces into air channels, and critically introduce community programs and passive design elements into the network of private/public spaces to facilitate neighborhood gatherings and more open living spaces.

Rather than offering a fixed set of climate design solutions, this project presents a flexible methodology for addressing both climatic and social challenges within Taiwan’s existing public housing typology.

Buildings consume tremendous energy, and many are used for air conditioning, especially in office buildings. New alternatives to conventional air conditioning have become a global priority. Several studies have shown that applying solar cooling systems to façade systems is very promising in hot regions because it is recognized as a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional compression refrigeration systems.

The intention of this research is to explore the design and development potential of solar desiccant cooling technology integration in façade systems. This study takes Shenzhen, a city in southern China, as the case with hot and humid subtropical climate contexts, and the target building typology is the new-built high rise office building. The biggest challenge is to study how to integrate multiple systems into one façade module and how they work. Additionally, it is also significant to evaluate to what extent the design solution contributes to minimizing cooling energy consumption. This thesis aims to identify the technical constraints to overcome for façade application and establish some instrumental design guides that can potentially feed future work.

The continuous immigration around the world increases ethnic diversity in major
cities. At the same time, the growing population, urbanization, and crowding in cities negatively impact well-being, bringing to the forefront the need for integrating restorative environments. In the context of multi-ethnic cities, there is a pressing need for integration to foster social cohesion and well-being. This thesis challenges these issues, with a case study of South Rotterdam, an ethnically segregated multi-ethnic area, with the reported need for improved quality of public space, safer urban environments, and opportunities for developing trust among residents. This thesis illustrates a methodology for designing public spaces that promote ethnic diversity by stimulating inter-ethnic social interaction in restorative environments.
I approach this assignment by proposing a network of public spaces that encourages participation in public life to stimulate social interaction, improving the social cohesion and well-being of residents in the area. To develop the network, I introduced a multi-method approach in both research and design, by integrating computational tools for urban design. Bringing together three disciplines, urban design, landscape architecture, and urban analytics, I propounded specific design strategies for the formation of the network and
the transformation of public space, toward inclusive restorative landscapes that promote diversity.
The outcomes of this project determined that implementing multi-methods approaches in urban design requires careful consideration and acknowledgment of the extent to which each method can be applied. However, there is great potential in advancing knowledge through different perspectives and creating innovative methodologies to approach such projects.
Finally, public space design has a promising opportunity to accommodate places that bring people together and increase feelings of belonging and trust, while embracing diversity. By reimagining the value of the street, I illustrate a strengthened public space that accommodates diverse activities in South Rotterdam, enhancing shared spaces and identity expression in public spaces.

This paper investigates the potential of passively lowering the operational energy requirement of performance buildings in the Central European Climate. The energy consumption of this typology is largely caused by mechanical ventilation to cool and ventilate the theatre during shows, necessary for the thermal comfort and ventilation requirements of the audience. Mechanical ventilation in theatres needs to significantly over-provide ventilation air in order to cool, and the exhaust air is not allowed to be mixed with incoming air, making them are inherently inefficient. Passive design strategies can lower the energy requirement of buildings during operation, by efficiently using ambient elements and simple laws of physics. Berlin, which perfectly embodies Central European’s climate, experiences strong seasonal climate variations. In the hotter summer months, there is a low ambient cooling potential. However, the climatic conditions are sufficient for a direct connection between the theatre and the ambient air, which would result in no need for HVAC during operation. There is a high ambient cooling potential in autumn, winter and spring. This potential can be fulfilled by efficiently integrating thermal mass, indirect evaporative cooling in the roof of the theatre, radiative cooling in the ceiling of the theatre, natural ventilation through buoyancy stack effect or wind-driven cross ventilation. These methods are addressed on macro scale and deserve micro scale validation of a site before implementation.

Almeria is a geographical point of arrival and passage of African migrants on their migratory route to Europe. The region is home to thousands of migrants seeking work in the agricultural sector. The lack of affordable housing for these collective has led to the creation of several informal settlements around agricultural areas.

This project is a proposal for social housing as an affordable housing offer for migrants, focusing on reducing the carbon footprint of buildings. For this, the design focuses on climate adaptation with low tech strategies and the implementation of materials from the context.

As opposed to the dependence on mechanical installations for acclimatisation, the project is inspired by the vernacular architecture of the area to adapt to the arid desert climate of Almeria. As construction material, compressed earth blocks are proposed, extracted in areas with microplastic contamination, in order to reduce the impact of agricultural activity on the environment.

Secularization has led to a decrease in the significance of religious traditions and thereby the use of churches. Accordingly, many church buildings have been converted or are used multi functionally such as the Stevenskerk in Nijmegen (NL), the monumental case study of this project. Thereby, the lifespan of
the building is extended while making use of its embodied energy.
However, the large enclosed space and the insufficient energy performance of the non-insulated building skin lead to an immense heating demand and closing of the Stevenskerk during the winter period due to unsatisfactory thermal conditions. Excessive heating results in a high energy consumption and building related CO2 emissions which are a main contributor to the ongoing climate crisis. Furthermore, the limited usability and accessibility during the cold season reduce the visibility of the national monument. This creates a lack of understanding the relevance of conserving religious heritage among citizens.
Therefore, this project investigated different renovation strategies with the aim to improve the thermal comfort in the Stevenskerk as a case-study for monumental and multi-functional churches by answering the research question «How can the renovation of the stained glass windows in combination with indoor space adaptations increase the thermal comfort in the multi-functional Stevenskerk in order to improve the accessibility of the monument all year around?»
Additional ambitions and values for the identification of suitable renovation measures were defined: the usability of the space, the reduction of the heating demand, the conservation of significant monumental values, the durability of the measures with respect to their sustainability, the proportionality of the financial investment and the acoustic and lighting conditions.
Literature review, in-situ measurements in the Stevenskerk, thermal computer simulations and physical calculations in combination with research by design enabled the identification, the development and the comparison of different renovation methods. The project introduced an evaluation framework which
resulted in a comparative overview of different window renovation and spatial adaptations strategies which is applicable for the Stevenskerk as well as for other multi-functional and monumental church buildings in the Netherlands.
According to the assessment of the introduced strategies, a renovation proposal for the Stevenskerk was developed. Based on the finding that one renovation measure for the whole building cannot fulfill all requirements, distinctive interventions for the different zones in the Stevenskerk are suggested. This enables a flexible and adaptive use according to the needs of different user groups and the space in a long-term perspective in accordance with its social responsibility as a building for the community.
To conclude, this project presents an approach on how to combine current user and building requirements with the preservation of heritage values by developing and selecting suitable renovation strategies in order to promote the functionality and visibility of the Stevenskerk and other multi-functional churches as «living heritage».

The Netherlands is in de midst of an energy transition, 7 million households and 1 million buildings that are currently poorly insulated and heated by natural gas must be transformed into well-insulated buildings and heated with a sustainable heat source. The government encourages homeowners to make their home more sustainable by providing subsidies for insulation and sustainable heating technologies such as heat pumps. Heat pump manufacturers are seizing their opportunity by developing online heat pump decision-making tools that allow homeowners to check whether their home is already suitable for a sustainable heat pump system, said they do this mainly out of their own interest to sell more heat pumps. In addition, there are also independent organizations that develop online heat pump decision making tools, they do this more out of interest for the climate. But it’s not clear whether these tools provide all the information and advice a homeowner needs before engaging an installer to install a heat pump system. In addition, it is not clear whether existing tools provide right advice to support the energy transition. Therefore existing online tools are analysed and reflected on through literature and additional research in order to develop a better tool. Therefore the main research question in this thesis is:

How is a heat pump decision tool for homeowners with limited technological knowledge designed, which gives an advice that contributes to the energy transition of the built environment and which provides an advice on which heat pump system and additional measures a homeowner should consider before engaging an installer?

First a literature study is conducted into the energy problems related to space heating in the Dutch built environment. Possible sustainable sources and heat pump systems with a high contribution to the energy transition are defined. These sources and systems are then included in the newly designed heat pump decision making tool.

Existing online heat pump decision making tools are then analysed in order to function as a basis to define all aspects a homeowner should consider before purchasing a heat pump system. A review is made on the basis of the literature study carried out earlier in which areas the advice of the existing tools is lacking. These shortcomings are addressed in the new tool.

Thirdly based on an example home, it is investigated which measures during an energy renovation that a home ultimately uses less energy, emits less CO2, is heated sustainably and has an higher indoor comfort. These findings are included in the new tool.

The new heat pump decision making tool is then developed on the basis of flow diagrams. All decision moments are based on the findings from the various conducted studies. These flowcharts are eventually converted into a digital online heat pump decision making tool. With this new tool, the homeowner is provided with all the necessary research-based information before engaging an installer to purchase a heat pump system. This assures the homeowner of correct advice without the involvement of an installer, which leads to a major contribution to the energy transition, better indoor comfort and lower heating costs.

Overall it can be concluded that: insulating the home first as described in the tool (minimum label B according to the insulation standard) leads to the highest contribution to the energy transition and a higher indoor comfort. And that the choice of the heat pump systems depends on the home-specific aspects, and the wishes of the homeowner.

The Dutch building stock has to switch to alternative energy-efficient heat sources, such as district heating or heat pumps, which will provide a lower supply temperature for the heating system in dwellings. Yet, the consensus is that dwellings need to be intensively renovated, to provide thermal comfort with low-temperature heating. However, it can be argued that a more affordable renovation with less renovation measures can also provide the same level of thermal comfort as the original situation. To this day, it is unknown what the minimal combination of renovation measures could be. Thus, this research aimed to design combinations of renovation measures, which are both affordable, and are able to provide thermal comfort in Dutch terraced houses. These renovation concepts are referred to as LT-Ready concepts. Hence, the main research question answered in this thesis is: “What combination of renovation measures for residential buildings is affordable and provides thermal comfort when using a lower supply temperature for heating?” First, a literature study is conducted. It investigated the available renovation budget of house owners, as well as thermal comfort, including current guidelines and local comfort aspects. Also, possible renovation measures to enable low-temperature heating were researched. Second, to select the most cost-effective renovation measures, a cost analysis was performed. Using this, renovation concepts were developed and tested with dynamic simulation software. Here, the thermal and energy performance was simulated with an adaption of the ATG-method for dwellings. The renovation concepts included the placement of a ventilation system and additional renovation measures. Results provided a variety of renovation concepts that were LT-Ready within a budget of €10,000. Different scenarios were developed with building or budget limitations, after which the best LT-Ready option was selected. In general, it was concluded that demand-driven exhaust ventilation (C2) or balanced ventilation with heat recovery (D1) is preferable. Wall insulation and replacing windows also showed a large effect on improving thermal comfort and reducing the heating demand. Add-on ventilators can boost thermal comfort, while having only a minimal effect on energy performance. In case no insulation can be applied, LT-radiators are an option to provide thermal comfort. This however increases the heating demand. Additionally, local comfort was investigated for different measures on the room. It was shown that small interventions such as add-on fans and furniture placement could substantially influence the air currents and temperature distribution within the living room. Also a tool which compares the heating demand of a dwelling with the available heating capacity at a lower supply temperature to determine whether a dwelling is LT-Ready, or what combination of measures is needed to make it LT-Ready. The tool is based on ISSO-51 and has a general approach which can be used for every terraced dwelling It can be downloaded from http://ltreadytool.nl. Overall, it can be concluded that there is a variety of possible LT-Ready renovations that provides thermal comfort and is affordable, depending on the specific scenario. It is proven that deep renovations are not essential to provide thermal comfort with low-temperature heating.

Current renovation practices cannot reach the energy reduction goal that the European Union has set by 2050. The traditional renovation methods are very time-consuming and cannot ensure the final energy improvement. The aim of this thesis focuses on the design of a prefabricated modular façade system that can be adaptable to different building typologies and climates. The main focus is to create a system that will reduce the current energy demands of existing buildings while at the same time giving the opportunity for a faster renovation approach.

Urban population growth predictions and the threats posed by climate change will exacerbate social problems such as equal access to water worldwide. This will happen mostly in developing countries and will couple with other environmental issues such as the intensive use of raw materials and the production of new waste. New solutions need to be thought and atmospheric water supplies such as fog or dew water represent alternative sources still largely untapped.
Within the Living in a Bottle project, this research looks at computational design workflows and Additive Manufacturing as tools that can play a role in mitigating these risks, while transforming the perception of plastic waste from burden to construction material. Moreover, 3d-printing represents a flexible fabrication technology that could play a relevant educational and developing role in growing communities. The goal of the research is to propose a solution for a mono-material building envelope component designed to enable and maximize atmospheric water collection in developing countries. The design aims to be adaptable to different climatic scenarios and easy to replicate locally. The task is approached systematically by defining all necessary functions and exploring the best strategy for each of them. Every step is performed considering both the optimization of functionality and 3d-printability. Functions are then combined in one element which is prototyped and tested. Computer simulations for the city of Rabat (Morocco), show that the combination of a dew and fog collector in one component would reduce by half the surface required to fulfill the water needs of one person. A feasibility analysis is also performed and the price of one module is estimated. The result is comparable to the cost of standard solutions in the field of atmospheric water harvesting and represents therefore an interesting achievement in the development of such technology.

The problem for which solutions are proposed in this report is ambient air pollution, which causes health risks for people living indoors worldwide. This research focuses on the two Major Air Pollutants nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter, that cause the most problems now and in the future.

The starting point of this research is to solve the problem within the building industry and with the use of natural ventilation. This distinguishes it from existing solutions in mechanical ventilation systems such as the HEPA filter.
The purpose of this research is to add a new function to the façade by filtering the incoming air using existing air purification technologies and applying them in an innovative way.

The research focuses on high-rise buildings in urban areas in industrialized regions, because there the exposure to polluted air is mainly indoors. Despite the fact that in those regions other measures are or already have been taken to reduce air pollution, this is still not enough and in these regions the willingness to apply technological solutions in the building industry is high.
The focus is on a facade type that is fully or partially closed and placed in a building that uses ventilation type C, which means natural supply of air through the facade and mechanical exhaust within the building.

The research question answered is as follows:
'How can the façade of a high-rise building in an industrialized region be designed to improve the indoor air quality by using ventilation type C?'

An answer to this question is given in this research by six concept designs and two elaborations in two case studies of the building 'Montevideo' in Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
To obtain that answer, a literature study was carried out to examine existing air purification technologies, five of which were further elaborated and their relationship to each other determined. It was also investigated what has to be taken into account when designing ventilation openings. Hereby it was examined which ventilation openings are relevant for this research and how they relate to each other.
Partly to validate the literature, partly to discover how air purification technologies work and mainly to support the concept designs, a test set-up was made to test filters for filtering out particulate matter. A sub-goal was to do this with a test set-up at home instead of in a laboratory.
For this research, hard criteria have been formulated that the concepts must meet. Soft criteria have been defined in order to be able to compare the different concepts and determine which concept is best to be worked out in which case study.

The concept designs and case studies, which are answers to the main question were created to serve as inspiration for designers interested in developing facade systems that filter air. As such, the designs in this research are primarily conceptual examples and are not yet a product. This research provides a theoretical basis for further concepts to be developed and applied in case studies.

Sustainability is trending. With large numbers, architects are part of the movement that is in search of a more sustainable world. An important part of this search is the urge to prove sustainability. Currently available methods to prove sustainability in architecture play into this demand. However, practice shows that these methods are not always well received as professionals experience issues and inconsistencies with them. How is it, that proving sustainability is so difficult, that even these great corporations cannot deliver a method to unequivocally prove sustainability? This questions is researched in this study. Professionals in the world of (Dutch) sustainable architecture are interviewed. Analysis of these interviews showed that the problem of proving sustainability is such an immensely complex and extensive one, that it can – and should – be approached as a Wicked Problem. Theory on Wicked Problems and results from the interviews are combined to explain the difficulties one faces when attempting to prove sustainability in architecture. Literature on strategies to approach Wicked Problems is discussed, to give an understanding on how problems of this size can be tackled. This gives a better understanding of why proving sustainability cannot be done with one general method, but rather needs a multitude of methods or approaches as every project is unique and therefore actually needs a tailor-made method of proof. Several approaches on how to think about proving sustainability are mentioned that might pique the interest of the architect.

Nowadays, the high rate of urban population growth due to immigration and scarcity of land has significantly increased the need for new high-rise dwellings. Meanwhile, the recent building regulations require buildings to be highly energy-efficient to reduce the building’s impact on the environment. However, the inherent characteristics of these new energy-efficient high-rise dwellings put them at higher risk of overheating. In addition, with the effect of climate change, the risk becomes even higher in the future. Though this problem could be addressed by the means of active cooling, doing so will increase the energy consumption of the building, confronting the core concept of the energy-efficient dwellings.
Therefore, this thesis investigated passive and energy-efficient solutions for the overheating problem in energy-efficient high-rise dwellings of temperate climate. Design Guidelines helping designers in addressing the overheating problem in tall buildings were introduced. Then, by applying bundles of these solutions through redesigning the façade of a case study building effectivity of the purposed solutions were investigated for the Dutch context.
The simulation results verified that overheating can still be prevented in the future by passive means. A proper combination of the thermal mass, heat dissipation and heat protection techniques with considering adaptivity in thermal comfort displayed that overheating can be prevented even by the end of the century.

This thesis aims to provide passive design recommendations to improve the design quality of low income houses in the Philippines, by evaluating the indoor environmental quality of the pilot floating house project. The pilot project is the result of researches carried out by Pieter Ham and Joran Van Schaik to find a solution for the housing backlog, poor living conditions and the seasonal natural disasters in the low lying areas of the Philippines. The thesis focuses on the indoor environmental quality, the thermal comfort of the pilot house. Prior to the field visit, the significant parameters for the in situ measurement and the comfort standards for the region are chosen by literature studies. A systematic measurement plan is made in order to perform in situ measurements and field study. The measurements are done for a period of nine days. In addition to this, one of the objectives of the research is to develop an economical measuring and remotely accessible monitoring device for the thermal comfort parameters. It is achieved by programming Raspberry Pi and DHT22 temperature and humidity sensor. Hypotheses are formulated after the field visit. Then the measured data is sorted systematically and analysed. This analysed data is further studied and the comfort performance of the house is compared with the comfort standards of the region. It is found that the performance is quite satisfactory for all the spaces in the house except the attic space, which has higher temperatures than the upper comfort level. Moreover the usability of the existing doors needs improvement in terms of controlling privacy and air velocity. For the improvements, it is envisioned to have minimal interventions to the existing design and construction. For this two options are put forward. Both the options are compared with the existing design by making DesignBuilder models. The simulation results of the models are compared to find the better performing strategy. Final design is made with the inference from the comparison of the simulation results, and visits to the local architecture. From the final design, the following design improvement recommendations are put forward for the housing type: “openings for ventilation at sleeping height in the attic floor” “openings at top of the roof to enhance stack effect” “collapsible doors with louvered shutters for providing users with more option in controlling air velocity and privacy”

This graduation thesis comprises a feasibility study and design of a floating classroom which can offer students a safe learning environment in typhoon and flood-prone areas by designing a classroom which is typhoon resilient with a floating foundation. This research is a follow-up study to the Finch Floating Homes project. One month of field research has provided more insight into the local problems in the schools, climate, materials and wishes from the school. These insights in combination with a literature study on school design, typhoon resiliency and indoor comfort are the basic principles for the design. Additional parameters are set up by analyzing the Finch Floating Home and the Makoko floating school and the design principles of the Finch’s buildings. In the design framework, there is a design analysis in which the choices for the design are explained followed by a structural analysis in which the design is tested for its resistance to high wind speeds that can occur with a typhoon and for its buoyancy by using the calculation software Technosoft and Axisvm. Also, passive design strategies which are implemented in the design are explained to make the classroom indoor comfortable. The result is a design of a floating classroom that is able to offer the students a safe and comfortable learning environment which is ready to be built.

The life cycle of a building has a tremendous impact on the environment. This is due to its energy demand, production and transportation of building materials, and its maintenance. Actually, the building industry is one of the most polluting industries that contribute to climate change. In the Netherlands alone, this sector is chargeable for 50% of the materials consumed, 40% of the total energy used and 35% of the total CO2 emissions. To limit the effects of climate change, the Dutch government has set several requirements for new buildings concerning energy use and emissions. The energy performance of buildings is a requirement to minimise the energy demand of buildings. The environmental performance is a requirement to reduce the environmental impact of materials used in the building. These requirements correlate negatively. Therefore, when the regulations get more strict, it will not be possible to satisfy both. Thus, the requirements will adversely affect each other. This thesis ‘When energy savings become a waste’ describes research about the design of facades to increase the sustainable performance of office buildings steered by the regulations energy performance of buildings and environmental performance of buildings. It is about the conflicting demand and how to design a facade in such a way that no energy will be lost because the energy reduction is less than the energy needed for the production of an element. The main research question that is answered in this research is ‘How can the Dutch building industry achieve sustainable buildings by designing according to both the energy performance and environmental performance of buildings applied on facades?’ First of all, the relation between sustainability, energy performance-, environmental performance- and circularity of buildings is established. In this research, sustainability is defined as a goal to minimize harmful emissions to the planet. This goal can be achieved in different ways , one of which is the circular building principal. A circular approach of building aims to no longer use new resources and produce no more waste. The energy performance of buildings and the environmental performance of buildings can help steer towards sustainable buildings. Next, the concepts of the environmental performance of buildings (MPG) and the energy performance of buildings (EPC) are introduced, and their current use in methods and tools is analysed. Several methods exist in which the energy performance and the environmental performance are combined. For this research, the ‘sustainability performance of buildings’ (DPG) will be used, which is an objective method combining the energy and material by converting the total CO2 emission in the energy performance to shadow costs and by adding this to the shadow costs as calculated in the environmental performance. Therefore, the sustainability performance indicates the total emissions of the whole life cycle of a product, process or building and the total costs required to bring the environmental impacts of a product, process or building to an acceptable level. The sustainability performance of buildings is expressed in shadow costs per square meter, €/m2. In a one-factor-at-the-time analysis, the environmental- and energy performance of buildings is calculated in different scenarios with a varying parameter in the design of the facade. For this analysis, a reference office building was used as a study case. This is a medium-sized office building with a curtain wall facade of aluminium and triple glazing. Eight variants are examined, in particular: type of glass, insulation value and insulation material, the ratio of open and closed parts in the facade, use of PV-panels on the facade, sun shading, facade composition, orientation and changing the building process from linear to circular. The most important results of the case study are as follows: •In types of glazing, vacuum glazing has the best sustainability score. Also, triple glazing with a total glass thickness of 12 mm is an improvement compared to the current thickness of 16 mm. The performance of HR++ glazing is only 1% worse than triple glazing and can, therefore, also be considered in use. •The insulation value, as well as the insulation material, has no significant influence on the sustainability performance. The reduction in energy by adding more insulation material is almost equal to the energy needed for the production of the extra material. •The percentage of glass in the facade has a tremendous impact on both the environmental performance and energy performance. Both the performances get worse with a higher percentage of glass. The trend in the design of office building is, however, to increase the percentage of glass. •The use of PV panels in the facade is beneficial for the sustainability performance. The revenue is small for PV panels on the north facade, and the investment will not pay off. In the other orientations the PV panels the payback time is between 11 and 15 years. PV panels on the south facade achieve the most improvement. •The addition of sun shading will only slightly improve the sustainability performance when no louvres are included in the design and the control system is optimal to reduce the heating and cooling demand. •A change in the facade system and materials can significantly reduce the sustainability performance. However, this is mainly caused because no louvres are added in the other facade designs. Therefore the addition of louvres is not sustainable; neither is increasing the height of the floors. The facade with wooden cladding has the best sustainability performance. •The orientation of the building can influence the sustainability performance without changing other parameters. For the reference building, the most optimal orientation is achieved by a rotation of 90 degrees. The windows are then orientated north and south. •The effect of different circular scenarios is calculated and compared to the reference scenario with a service life of 50 years. The scenario considering the reference situation with a realistic service life of 20 years, has the highest score of all. In the next scenario, the percentage of reuse is increased to 60% and the service life of the facade is 20 years, resulting in an improved sustainability performance of 2%. In the last scenario, the service life is extended to 100 years, causing an improvement of 4%. Conclusions of this research are only based on the sustainability performance and do not take into account social and financial aspects. Therefore in some variants, the most sustainable solution might not be feasible in practice. For example, vacuum glazing is very expensive, and consequently, triple glazing with a thickness of 12 mm is advised to use. One realistic variant is calculated with a combination of variants. In this scenario, financial and social feasibility are taken into account, and an improvement of 15,5% is achieved, showing the value of this integral approach. Based on this research, it can be concluded that the Dutch building industry can achieve sustainable buildings when the design is focused on decreasing the sustainability performance of buildings. An integral approach considering both energy and material use is essential when enhancing the sustainability performance of buildings. The goal of the Dutch government to steer on CO2 emission can help to improve the sustainability performance. However, the relationship between the sustainability performance and CO2 emission is not entirely linear. Energy and material use need to be balanced together to accomplish a sustainable built environment. To be able to use this knowledge in a broader context it is recommended to conduct this research for a combination of the used variants, take into account design aspects of the whole building, and perform analysis on multiple buildings. In this research, only the aspects of sustainability concerning the planet are taken into account. Aspects regarding people and profit should also be considered to determine the feasibility of sustainable measures.

Context - In the construction industry of today, buildings are seen as finished products rather than ongoing processes. The business model of facades as a product service system is a promising strategy to change these practices. A pilot project at Delft University of Technology sparks the interest of Alkondor Hengelo, to explore their tasks and responsibilities as pioneers in this new way of supplying facades. Suppliers would retain the ownership of a leased PSS façade and guide a project through its entire service life and beyond, managing materials in a circular way. The two main challenges were identified as 1. Going from a linear model to circularity, and 2. The ongoing involvement in a PSS instead of handing over their product. The first steps of implementing the façade leasing model have been taken, however the full strategy yet needs to be outlined, to understand how value is added for suppliers and clients and where technical barriers are found.

Objective - Ideally, a PSS would optimize façade performance and provide all services that are needed to do so. This adds value for the client and creates a steady source of income for the supplier. As the pathway to a full PSS is best approached in smaller steps, it should be defined: What set of tasks would the façade supplier take on in a basic stage of servitization, and what could be added on to form a more advanced service agreement? For façade suppliers, it is important to make the best use of the investment into their product, as they would not only be acting as producers, but also operate and safeguard the product and its performance throughout the entire cradle-to-cradle life cycle. Therefore, it should be designed for optimal operation and output during use, and designed for circularity, to achieve a high residual value after the first use. Different design criteria and considerations are therefore given, as a reference for future designers of circular facades as PSS.

Philippine low-income housing is uncomfortable since it is not built to deal with the hot and humid climate in a passive way. Since local vernacular architecture is known to have a good climatic responsive performance, the aim of this research is to learn how Philippine vernacular design strategies can improve thermal comfort for low-lying, sub-urban and rural, low-income housing. The strategies studied are openings, eaves, stilts, orientation, roof insulation and roof angle.
 Two-day in-situ thermal measurements are used to study the comfort performance of the housing typology. To study the influence of the strategies or combinations of them on comfort, numerical predictions are used consisting of energy and CFD, wind-driven simulations. The numerical models are validated before the strategies are varied on a general case or a case study. The average exceeding temperature (AET) in Kelvin is used to assess comfort. It is calculated by accumulating for every hour of the year the exceeding temperature in Kelvin and divide this by the amount of hours that could be uncomfortable. A conceptual implementation study is performed to take disaster resilient and practical considerations into account. The impact of varying the strategies on the case study resulted in a reduction in AET of about 5 K for openings, 0.7 K for orientation, 0.6 K for eaves, 0.5 K for stilts and 0.1 K for roof insulation. On this basis, it can concluded that applying the guidelines as stated below, comfort increases significantly. More impact can be obtained if the strategies are implemented and combined as described by the passive design guidelines below. • To increase wind driven ventilation in wind direction, openings should be made on the wind- and leeward facade until ground floor, have an opening height (O_h) based on the facade height (F_h) by the rule of thumb: O_h[m]=0.85·F_h[m], include a leeward roof opening and include openings on the remaining facades. • Dependent on the wind direction, the openings should be opened accordingly. If no wind is present, all roof openings should be opened. During typhoons, they should be closed. • As much open area on facades in the main monsoon wind direction is advised. The openings on the other facades should be placed in the middle of the width to increase the performance with wind coming from the other directions. • Hinged eaves with a 15° angle and length calculated by the rule of thumb:  E_l,15°[m]=0.6·F_h[m] should be used. During typhoons they should be folded in to decrease the related pressures.
• Increasing stilts height increases comfort by an exponential decay. To determine the height, a comfort increase of about 0.17 K for 1 meter, 0.30 K for 2 meter and 0.40 K for 3 meter in AET reduction are obtained. Braced, wooden stilts are advised to protect against floods and increase earthquake resilient behaviour. • A roof insulation with an Rc-value of 1 m²K/W is advised to gain about 0.2 K AET. Further research is needed on buoyancy driven ventilation to improve the provided design guidelines.