WASH interventions are essential to support human health, prosperity, and dignity, as they provide the base for an adequate standard of living. In many low- and middle- income countries, especially in rural and low-income areas, decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) can offer a solution to convey, treat, and dispose of or reuse wastewater closer to the source and through smaller conveyance networks. In Indonesia, and as such in the Brantas basin in East Java, focus area of this study, the government has recognized DEWATS as their best available option for improving sanitation in dense low-income urban settings. Although the percentage of households with access to proper sanitation in the province of East Java has been increasing steadily, service coverage and the quality of sanitation systems still need to be increased to reach the desired coverage by 2024. Similar to other fields of application, within WASH and concerning DEWATS, stakeholder engagement is key to develop and strengthen integrated and sustainable approaches. Nonetheless, it is challenging to formulate targeted interventions in the watershed since they depend on the willing support of various stakeholders who may have different priorities (even within their own institutions), having diverse (and sometimes conflicting) viewpoints. This may result in stakeholders strongly contesting the appropriateness of various solutions. An exploration of stakeholder priorities is therefore needed to facilitate the application of wastewater treatment technologies. Due to its participatory approach and the type of interpretation that the method allows, Q-methodology was selected to explore this situation. Q-methodology is a set of techniques which allow for the study of ‘subjectivity’, combining statistics with the depth provided by qualitative data. It is composed of the data collection technique (called Q-sorting) and a data analysis step via correlation and factor analysis. In this research, the perspectives and priorities of various stakeholders regarding decentralized wastewater treatment solutions are explored to assess the applicability and acceptability of DEWATS in the Brantas river basin. This aims to identify context-based criteria and challenges to the implementation of DEWATS in the Brantas watershed. Although findings from Q-methodology cannot be generalized for a general population, the findings from this study show strong indication that Surabaya government workers tend to prioritize similar criteria, that Malang community members think more similarly than their Surabaya counterparts, and that if a respondent prioritizes the elements describing the 4-F1 perspective (Basic current needs; Long-term sustainability; Socialization and collaboration; High awareness; Economically conscious) then they are likely to be some type of specialist. Additionally, four distinctive perspectives were identified: a focus on long-term sustainability of the system, although with less defined stakeholder responsibilities; a pragmatic, need-based approach; a preference for community-led approaches with user-friendly systems and greater subsidy availability; and a collaborative, but still community-run, approach with a high feeling of ownership. Further research is needed nonetheless to identify how the levels of agreement and disagreement among the different groups for the various statements presented could be integrated into the design and decision-making process for DEWATS in the region. ... Read more

Located in Suriname, the village of Ricanau Mofo faces a multitude of environmental challenges. This report delves into a comprehensive study that employed a multidisciplinary approach, leveraging the expertise of students from various backgrounds to address these pressing issues.

The most critical concern identified was the relentless erosion of the riverbank, forming an existential threat to the village. The report explores interventions for both riverbank and soil erosion. Building upon the previous year's sheet pile wall construction by van Dongen et al. (2023), the report evaluates its effectiveness and proposes potential improvements for natural shore protection. It presents an analysis of structural solutions like sheet pile walls and quay walls, alongside nature-based methods that promote vegetation growth. A multi-criteria analysis is employed to objectively evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of each intervention.

Moving beyond the riverbank, the report investigates soil erosion in Ricanau Mofo's old center. To understand the water flow patterns, a hydrological analysis was conducted. This analysis incorporated field measurements, on-site observations, and existing scientific reports. By considering factors like clay content, vegetation cover, discharge, and slope, the study categorized different flow areas within the village center. This detailed analysis lead to the proposal of a combination of targeted interventions, including roof gutters, strategic vegetation planting, and channel improvements, all aimed at effectively addressing drainage issues and mitigating soil erosion.

Waste management emerged as another critical concern. The report sheds light on the impact of inadequate waste collection systems on hygiene and even the success of other implemented solutions. Recognizing the importance of community involvement, the report proposes a roadmap and implements a physical prototype for establishing a more organized and effective waste management system, promoting a sense of shared responsibility for a cleaner Ricanau Mofo.

This report illustrates the value of a multidisciplinary approach. By combining diverse expertise and conducting thorough analyses, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of Ricanau Mofo's environmental challenges. The proposed solutions for riverbank and soil erosion control, improved drainage, and effective waste management offer a sustainable path forward for the village's future development. ... Read more

This report presents the findings of a comprehensive analysis of the literature on impact evaluations of foreign aid funded interventions in the water sector of rural Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The study was conducted using a dataset extracted from the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) Development Evidence Portal (DEP), which is one of the largest repositories for evidence-based research in Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs). The extracted publications underwent systematic screening based on predetermined criteria. Studies that pertained to interventions including infrastructure development and water resource management were included, while papers focusing solely on education, behavioral change, awareness campaigns, or the exclusive provision of soap were excluded. After classification, it was found that interventions related to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) dominated the dataset, so studies related to agricultural productivity were excluded. The final dataset consisted of 30 papers. These publications were classified and analyzed using bibliographic and network analyses to explore the structure of the research community. The content of the papers was then analyzed and situated within external literature to validate conclusions, contextualize findings, and identify gaps and areas for further research.

The dataset consisted solely of impact evaluations of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) related to WASH interventions. The trials were spread across nine countries, with the majority conducted in Kenya, and their duration varied from eight weeks to 29 months. Most interventions focused on low-cost household water treatment technologies, with chlorination being the most common. Regarding outcomes, most trials investigated health-related outcomes for children under five years, with diarrhea prevalence being the most frequently studied outcome. The results showed significant heterogeneity among trial findings, especially for diarrhea prevalence, suggesting that intervention effectiveness may depend on contextual factors that are not yet fully understood.

The research community within the dataset showed disparities in the distribution of trials across SSA, with most studies conducted by organizations from the Global North and published in journals targeting a Global North audience. The studies used similar approaches and focused on highly recurrent outcomes, suggesting a potential lack of diversity in the knowledge base. The dataset emphasized low-cost interventions suitable for large-scale implementation and showed a preference for RCTs due to their ability to establish causal relationships, minimize bias, and produce generalizable findings. However, the RCTs included design limitations that compromised these strengths, including limited blinding and reliance on subjective outcome indicators. Furthermore, reporting on field challenges and logistical information was insufficient, limiting generalizability.

The study highlights the need for greater diversity in approaches and knowledge, stronger local representation, and increased innovation in research on WASH interventions in SSA. To address these issues, several recommendations are made. First, greater representation of organizations from the Global South and increased collaboration with the Global North are needed, as such partnerships were associated with high-impact research. Second, standardized reporting guidelines and data-sharing protocols should be developed to improve transparency and reproducibility of impact evaluations. Third, greater diversity in targeted outcomes and intervention approaches is recommended, along with overall improvements in research quality.

Overall, this study provides insights into the state of impact evaluations in LMICs, highlighting both progress and remaining challenges. By identifying gaps and offering recommendations, it contributes to improving the quality and impact of future research in development contexts. ... Read more

In this study, the relationship between water quality and agriculture in the upstream region of the Brantas catchment has been investigated, with a focus on Electric Conductivity (EC), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, nitrate, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), phosphate and ammonia concentrations. The EC concentrations ranged from 120 to 570 μS/cm, the DO concentrations from 3.15 to 8.57 mg/L, the nitrate concentrations from 0 to 20 ppm, the nitrite concentrations from 0 to 3 ppm, the BOD concentrations from 6.22 to 6.87 mg/L, the phosphate concentrations from 0.25 to 1 mg/L and the ammonia concentrations from 0 to 0.25 mg/L. Using detailed land use data, the correlation between land use classes and water quality parameters was analyzed. Nitrate concentrations of streams of which the catchment area consists of over 70% Ladang area ranged from 2.5 to 11 ppm, while catchment areas consisting of over 70% of Kebun area featured nitrate concentrations of up until 4 ppm. Regarding EC, this difference is 200 to 475 μS/cm versus 200 up until 375 μS/cm. Certain parameter concentrations, in particular BOD, raise potential concern. While this research provides some insights into water quality in the Brantas catchment, it also underlines the need for further investigations employing improved methodologies, increased sampling over a larger timescale and area, and comprehensive, multidisciplinary approaches. It is recommended that further studies in the area focus more on different parameters, in particular BOD. ... Read more

Indonesia faces the challenge of attaining renewable energy goals and reducing carbon emissions by 29% by 2030. Despite a renewable energy goal of 23% of the national energy mix by 2025, only 14% of electricity production is projected to be generated from renewable sources by 2023. Accelerated deployment of renewable energy solutions is required to achieve these goals.

Indonesia has abundant renewable energy sources, such as hydropower, solar, and wind. Yet, a challenge arises from the difference between the electricity demand and supply patterns of these sources, which do not match throughout the day. Fluctuating energy supply patterns and variable energy demand necessitate using efficient Energy Storage Systems (ESS) to bridge the gap.

With its extensive coastline, Indonesia can potentially explore single reservoir Seawater Pumped Hydro Storage (SPHS), a variant of Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES), as an alternative to solve these challenges. Similar to an enormous rechargeable battery, the reservoir in an SPHS system functions as an energy storage system. The system works by pumping up the seawater to the reservoir to store surplus energy during periods of ample supply and discharging it to generate electricity through a hydropower plant during periods of high electricity demand. This research aims to identify the ideal locations for SPHS systems in coastal areas of Indonesia. A Python GIS algorithm was developed to automate the selection process. The identified SPHS sites are then evaluated economically to ascertain their viability. The study concludes by comparing the carbon reduction potential of these systems to Indonesia's carbon emission reduction goals.

The research reveals 609 potential SPHS sites across Indonesia, with a total peak power that can be regenerated of technically potential sites of 29 Gigawatt-peak (GWp). Among these, 297 locations are deemed economically feasible, contributing a potential peak power that can be regenerated of 15 GWp. The peak electricity demand in Indonesia is approximately 44 GW, typically occurring at 8 p.m. The technical potential of SPHS promises an 11% reduction in carbon emissions from the energy sector, while the economically feasible sites could achieve a 6% reduction in carbon emissions projected in 2030. ... Read more

This study investigates the connection between macro-scale parameters (MSP) and micro-scale water quality parameters (MSWQP) in the Brantas River, employing a multivariate linear regression (MLR) modelling approach. The analysis reveals several critical insights into the complex dynamics of water quality in this river system.

Key findings indicate that high-quality input data, both in terms of quantity and measurement frequency, play a key role in the effectiveness of predictive models. Seasonality is a useful predictor and is recommended to be supplemented with rainfall data to better capture its influence on runoff and water quality. The study introduces the concept of basin accumulation and the implementation of buffer areas, demonstrating that these enhancements lead to improved model performance.

In conclusion, it can be said that relying just on macro-scale parameters is insufficient to generate an effective linear regression model. However, with the right optimizations and useful input data, it can be an insightful and valuable tool for water quality prediction. ... Read more

The water quality of the Brantas river in Indonesia is of concern to several agencies on East Java. These agencies all measure its water quality in their own way in terms of locations, rhythms and parameters. The goal of this thesis is to find out if these agencies measure the same and if not, how these measurements differ. From these measurements, perspectives are constructed for each agency with the use of Principal Component Analysis. The agencies investigated are the Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Jawa Timur (DLH Jatim), Belai Besar Wilayah Sungai Brantas (BBWS) and Perum Jasa Tirta I (PJT). As an addition to the PCA, a neural network model is constructed and trained to recognize the measurement agency of a datapoint from the measurement values. It was found that the all three agencies recognized oxygen as a dominant driver in water quality processes. Secondary processes were mostly driven by rainfall, but the effect of this was seen differently by the agencies. DLH Jatim distinguishes surface waste runoff separately from rainfall, while Perum Jasa Tirta I will see them as inherently connected. BBWS will not recognize the surface waste runoff process as a significant factor in the water quality. These differences found in the representation of core processes in the Brantas outline how different agencies can have a different perspective on water quality. This was further underlined by the conclusions from the neural network analysis. Here it was found that the author could be recognized from the measurement values alone on 88% of agency data. ... Read more

From 2018 to 2020, the city of Breda (NL) faced drought, with significant economic losses and water scarcity problems. The water board within which the city is located began to consider new possible water management practices, due to the unsustainability of the current ones. This study aims to investigate how a change of the current paradigm can improve the current approach in water management, shifting from a linear to a water management circular approach, and from command-and-control to adaptive. Starting from the case scenario of Breda, the study considers how through the reuse of management wastewater treatment plant effluent and stormwater, and the application of sewer mining units, it may affect the circularity and adaptability of the system. Then, based on Breda's experience, an attempt is made to investigate the concepts of circularity and adaptability. \\To be able to understand the current water situation and approach in the city of Breda, a water balance for the year 2020 was drafted. The water balance for 2020 for the city of Breda shows a positive value of 50 mm/year. The definitions of circularity and adaptability for a water management system were determined, and for each of the concepts a framework has been developed, to assess the level of circularity and adaptability before and after the interventions. Then, a workshop with local experts in the field was organized. Different strategies of interventions were proposed to them, in order to evaluate their suitability. Then, a final strategy was formulated, where wastewater effluent is employed as irrigation water for agriculture in the south of the municipality, stormwater discharge into wetlands to recharge aquifers and three sewer mining units in the rural area of Breda. These interventions showed a positive effect on the water system, since the volume of water stored in the system has increased, giving an overall better performance of the circularity and adaptability indicators. Moreover, the final strategy shows a better water balance of 100 mm/year. This research aims at creating a better understanding of concepts like circularity and adaptability. The study shows that there is a potential for re-using water to enhance the overall performance of the water system under certain conditions. ... Read more

In developing countries, dependency on the agricultural sector, especially represented by smallholder farmers, is high. Approximately 90% of food in Africa is produced by smallholders.
Smallholder farmers are defined as farmers cultivating less than 2 ha. They often run their business relying on traditional farming methods, making limited use of agricultural inputs. In addition, only a small share of smallholder farmers sells part of their produce, whilst the rest only farms for self-sustenance. Many initiatives in past and present times are aimed at increasing the productivity of smallholder farmers, some supplying agricultural inputs, others focusing on the distribution of knowledge.

In this research, one of these initiatives was reviewed, namely the Farm Incubator Model as implemented by aQysta. The goal of this commercially-oriented Farm Incubator Model, based in Malawi, is to enlist smallholder farmers and supply them with seeds for cash crops such as garlic, fertiliser, a hydro-powered pump for irrigation and pesticides. This is combined with regular coaching sessions, to familiarise the farmers with the novel technologies and agricultural inputs they are supplied with. The ultimate aim of the model is to enable smallholder farmers to make the transition towards commercial farming. In this study, a threefold approach was used to review this model, which at the time this study was conducted was still in its pilot phase. First of all, interviews were conducted with extension officers tasked with implementing the model and with aQysta office staff members. These were aimed at the exploration of the functioning of the model, the assessment of the way in which the model assists participating farmers. In addition, other participatory learning initiatives were reviewed and compared with the Farm Incubator Model. Also, a quantitative analysis was performed, using
remote sensing data, to analyse the impact of the model. Secondly, an analysis of variance was performed on the fourth Integrated Household Survey, a survey containing over 25,000 entries, focusing amongst others on agriculture in Malawi. The focus of this analysis was to identify whether the smallholder challenges addressed by the Farm Incubator Model are widely recognised. Furthermore, by quantifying them, the severity of these challenges was assessed. Lastly, a literature review focusing on smallholder challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa was conducted, to explore the extent to which the previously found challenges for smallholder farming are recognised in a broader scope. Furthermore, it was reviewed whether the way in which the model is implemented is the best way to reach the goal of commercialising smallholder farmers. It was found that the Farm Incubator Model addresses smallholder farmer challenges accurately and therefore is a very promising way to help smallholder farmers. However, findings suggested that for farmers to be commercial, being independent is imperative. In case of farm incubators, where all inputs are acquired for the participants, this independence can be at stake. For aQysta's Farm Incubator Model this could pose a future challenge.
... Read more

In 1972 the Union of Waterboards and the Association of Dutch Municipalities drew up a directive to give waterboards and municipalities a guideline in how to divide tasks and costs in the new situations that were the result of the Pollution of Surface Waters Act, decreed in 1970. At 7 waterboards costs are still settled with (a part of) the municipalities based on the method proposed in the directive. Most waterboards have therefore already abandoned this cost distribution. With the use of several focus points an overview has been created through interviews and document analysis on the current use of the cost distribution based on the directive. Various aspects emerged from the interviews and documents that may play a role in the application of the cost distribution based on the 1972 Directive. In the end, 9 subjects were mentioned or discussed more often that could have a direct or indirect influence on the fact why the cost distribution is (still) applied. These subjects appear to influence whether or not a cost distribution is used on the basis of the 1972 Directive. It could be a correlation of various factors per waterboard, but it could also be a coincidence. All in all, it is clear that the cost distribution based on the 1972 Directive is being applied less and less. The distribution method is also not being reintroduced by water boards and municipalities. ... Read more

This article uses Sentinel-1 satellite images to identify rice fields in Rwanda from 2017 to 2021 in an attempt to derive the current status of rice in Muvumba catchment, in the northern part of Rwanda. The timing of rice cultivation in each season in that area was identified as not homogeneous, but generally aligned with the local rainy season. The results identified after late 2019 show a large change, with flooding from extreme rainfall as a possible cause. The paddy fields may have been completely flooded and the infrastructure destroyed. Policy changes in Rwanda’s agriculture may also be a contributing factor. Among them, the implementation of land consolidation policies can influence some of the farmers’ options, for example, by withdrawing from the rice planting program. The absence of official data and field data makes this project not being able to provide definite reasons for the results. The open discussion of this project makes it exploratory and offers the possibility for potential follow-up studies. The uncertainty of the results also suggests that more attention needs to be focused on these topics. However, what is certain is that the use of remote sensing images to monitor rice has the potential to be cost-effective. ... Read more

This PhD study aims to assess the relations between land tenure security, farmland use and agricultural productivity. Using a locally-defined research approach, the study explores those relations from a review of the literature to a case study in Rwanda. Therefore, the case study includes four research sites: Gatwe, Nyabubare, Rusebeya and Rutemba, and it follows three research periods within the period 2006-2017.

First, considering land registration as the initial activity that guarantees legal tenure of land, this study carried a review of the scholarly literature on the effect of land registration on these relations. 85 studies were included. The review focused on the regular claim that land registration’s facilitation of formal documents-based land dealings leads to investment in a more productive agriculture. I found this claim problematic for three reasons. First, most studies offer no empirical evidence to support this claim. Second, there are suggestions that land registration can actually threaten ‘de facto’ tenure security or even lead to insecurity of tenure. Third, the gendered realization of land registration and security may lead to uneven distribution of costs and benefits. These effects are however often ignored. Next to suggesting the importance of land information updating and the efficiency of local land management institutions, this review also found that more research with a combined locally-set approach is needed to better understand any relation(s) between land tenure security and agricultural productivity.

In the second part, this study attempted the first and the last problems listed here above by the literature review. I have designed a locally- defined Farmland Tenure Security Index (FLTSI) and applied it to the four case studies in Rwanda. On the basis of a data set collected from four research sites over the course of three agricultural years (2006/2007, 2012/2013, 2016/2017), this study empirically assessed the relations between land tenure security and smallholder farms’ crop production in Rwanda. We show that the general assumption that secure land tenure improves farm level harvests, is not found for smallholder farms in Rwanda. My FLTSI is based on plausible threats as conveyed by smallholder farmers at each research site. The findings additionally indicate that the harvest of main crops did neither statistically correlate with this index, nor show differences from the mean at all research sites. Instead, factors mainly related to the ongoing crop intensification program, though threatening tenure security, contributed to the increase of small farm harvests. Lower land tenure security did not affect farmers satisfaction of the crop intensification program Most of them claimed that in the end what matters most is that their harvests continue to increase. The second part concluded that in Rwanda, a new wave of agriculture strategizing contributed to increasing small farms’ harvest of prioritized crops and decreasing farmland tenure security simultaneously.

Third, motivated by the previous conclusion in part two, this study assessed the effect of farmland use change on agriculture production. It sought to determine which of the fragmented or consolidated farmland use earn higher yields for the smallholder farmer in Rwanda. When the agricultural reform started in 2007, the country introduced the Crop Intensification Program (CIP) which promotes farmland Use Consolidation (LUC). Using data collected at the four research sites and considering the three agriculture years, the study confirmed that the CIP/LUC program led to conversion of perennial crops, mainly banana plantations, into seasonal crops prioritized by the program. Overall, this shift in farmland use has created an increase in both harvest and monetary yield of prioritized crops. However, within that general trend, I observed differences: farmers with smaller and/or less farm plots did not realize as much yield increase as those who joined the CIP/LUC program with larger and/or multiple farm plots.

Furthermore, this study made a first attempt to understand the implication of the studied relations on food security. The link between yield and meals per day allowed to demonstrate the farmer’s household food access. However, the available data did not allow to extend the analysis to include the nutritious values of the food. Nevertheless, I clearly showed that following the start of the CIP/LUC program, farmers increased their yield and number of meals per day. Future research is need to study the types of food available on the market.

The locally-defined research approach designed for this study combined statistical and qualitative analysis of the information collected from interviews and focus group discussions at a local level. I argue that this approach has contributed to an understanding of those relations that would be overlooked if the research used larger entity setting and econometric methods. This research recommends that a similar approach be applied while studying locally-defined assessment of the relations between land tenure security, farmland use and agricultural productivity. Future research needs to be concentrated on examining these relations from a more operational perspective, taking into account local social-economic and institutional patterns at work. There is a need for a mixed methods approach utilizing experiments as well as randomization, where feasible, in combination with increasing flows of spatial and time-series data from diverse sources. Household-farm panel data collected over long periods of time, combined with simulations, can also provide valuable insights about the relations between land tenure security, farmland use and agricultural productivity. ... Read more

This thesis is the first attempt in modeling Sennacherib’s (Neo-Assyrian king) colossal watercourse networks, with its main goal to uncover their hypothetical functionalities and operation, regarding irrigation needs and harvest yield production. Their total length surpasses 150 Km and was completed in four stages, with lack of data forcing stage two’s exclusion. The stages modeled are separated in a Local and Regional system, the latter is assumed to connect the Zagros mountains foothills and Bandawai area with the capital of the era (early 6th century BCE) Nineveh, through a mix of artificial channels, canalized rivers, and streams. Two models were used AquaCrop and Sobek, with the former for crop and latter for flow simulations. Two feeder channel widths (1- 2 m), along with three inflow (“Wet”- “Reference”- “Dry”) and control (Absent, Maximum, Limited) choices are modeled with Sobek, adding up to 14 hydraulic scenarios. Noteworthy is that “Dry” year agriculture requires irrigation throughout the hole region and both seasons (Spring-Autumn), with results presenting around 60% gains in harvest amounts when control is applied for the Regional
System. Although navigation feasibility was not thoroughly explored, “Reference”
(and consequently “Wet”) year inflows show water depths rising to or higher
than the accepted. Concluding a decisive answer to the “archeological debate” of
Sennacherib’s motivation for construction of such massive infrastructure is impossible with present data (Environment, canal, social) available. Circumstances favoring control and therefore planned rural irrigation (rather than capital-centered) for Nineveh’s hinterlands are analyzed and discussed. Lastly a few interventions seen as valuable for further modeling studies were suggest towards the members of the LoNAP team as a contribution to their upcoming field survey. ... Read more

Ancient Basrah has been the center of anthropological research studies due to its significance in the development of the culture, politics and economics of the region at the time. Agriculture was one of the main income revenues for ancient Basrah even though it received only an average of 60mm of rainfall per year, indicating a large reliance on irrigation. Therefore, this study focuses on how the landscape would have offered options for irrigated farming. The unique element of this irrigation system is the existence of many large ridges, however their significance is not yet understood.
Within this study a HEC-RAS hydraulic model was set up to explore the hypothesis of the ridges themselves having served the function of elevated agricultural fields. Therefore, multiple scenarios were constructed and sensitivity analysis of the boundary conditions performed, to explore how easily the landscape within the ridge area could be flooded and transformed into a marshland. The results showed that although there were always some dry spots between the fields, most of it was flooded all day and all year round, with a mean water depth ranging from 0.3m to 0.6m. The maximum water depth stayed below 5m in all model variations (except for one sensitivity analysis run), therefore the ridges (which have been hypothesized to originally have been 5 m tall) would have stayed dry.
The main limitations were set by the lack of data available. Except for the elevation data, very little data was available in general and additionally no data from before the 1940’s was available. Therefore, this study should be viewed as an exploration of how the system may have functioned given certain hypothesized boundary conditions. Further research for confirmation of the utilized boundary conditions is necessary to confirm the study results, for example decreasing the river cross-sections by 25% lead to an increase in mean depth of up to 26%. ... Read more

This research focuses on using Sentinel-2 optical imagery to provide a means of high-resolution monitoring and evaluation of changes in Total Suspended Matter (TSM) concentration in the Brantas river basin. In situ spectral measurements as well as laboratory results show an extremely turbid nature of the Brantas River surface water. Current monitoring of the river water quality, is done by point measurements representing point estimations of the water quality in time and pace. Interactions within the system are mostly unknown. Having accurate knowledge of near real time water quality information will greatly enhance the effectiveness of the monitoring organizations, especially if this comes in a high
spatial and temporal resolution. The Sentinel- 2 remote sensing platform delivers information which can be used to derive such data with a 10m resolution and revisit time of 5 days. To estimate TSM concentrations a multi-conditional algorithm is developed. It uses linear regression for low to medium
TSM concentrations based on the green and red band reflectance values and polynomial regression for high to extremely high TSM concentrations based on the red edge NIR band. Testing the multi-conditional algorithm on the WISP-3 in situ spectral data shows the model’s performance is good with r2 = 0.79, RMSE
= 66.5 mg/L and NRMSE = 9.7%. Performance of the multi-conditional algorithm is found to be poor when based on Sentinel-2 (S2) bottom of atmosphere data from bands green, red and red edge NIR. However, when recalibrating the polynomial model on Sentinel-2 atmospherically uncorrected top of atmosphere
data, results are more promising: r2 = 0.75, RMSE = 64.2 mg/L and NRMSE = 11.3% . Also, TSM estimates from remote sensing reflectances atmospherically corrected by different processors are compared, from which ACOLITE (RMSE = 5.0 mg/L, NRMSE = 25.3%) performs significantly better than C2RCC (RMSE =
11.3 mg/L, NRMSE = 57.5%) and Sen2Cor (RMSE = 42.8 mg/L, NRMSE = 217%). This study shows that 1) high-resolution spatial and temporal variation of TSM concentration estimation can be made visible within the Brantas river basin, 2) an overview of TSM concentration estimation of the entire basin at one
moment in time can be achieved and visualised, 3) an extensive historical record of TSM concentration estimations can be accessed, and 4) information is provided to prioritize sampling locations and field surveying times. ... Read more

The Netherlands has a long and fascinating history with water to keep its land safe and dry. Recently, when the country is exposed to a changing climate, it is at the turning point to shift from defensive water control to adaptive and integrated management. Landscape design has a role to play in endowing water and water management with new values and enabling the water as well as its related natures are adapted to be more resilient for the future.

The study area Baakse beek has a rich context in which the prominence of water greatly decides the water management and the landscape and also exposes the area to the challenge of climate change. Hence, one aim of this study is to review the local historical water management approach and take values from them to bring back wetness conditions and water balance. The long history with water also means there are many opportunities (ecology, aesthetic, and cultural heritage) in the area, but the difficulty is how to weave together ecological function and spatial experience in landscape design. So, the second aim of this study is to find ways to communicate ecological function through spatial design.

Through exploring the history with water over time, three categories of local historical water management approaches are summarized and they are adjusted to different water retention and ecological principles to formulate design strategies involving stream re-naturalisation, water retention, and water purification. For design, the core is to provide human with pleasure from the landscape appearance that involves beneficial ecological functions. landscape design needs to communicate ecological function and to conform to our cultural expectations of naturalness. This is achieved through two approaches, spatial modification, which gives an overall framework of landscape experience and cue to care, which gives hints of maintenance and neatness.

The design explorations take place on various scales and locations. Selected design principles are assigned to the most suitable locations in the Baakse beek catchment area to preserve and strengthen the landscape characteristics of each sub-area. Two landscape ecology models and two design options for spatial experience are built in the Medler-Wiersse cluster, estate landscape, to test various ways to bridge the gap between the environment and spatial experience. Combinations provide design possible options towards alignment between landscape ecology and spatial experience.
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Ephemeral rivers are common hydrological features in Southern Africa where periods of up to 9 months occur, without significant rainfall. These rivers are important in the Kitui region of Kenya, where water shortage impedes rural and urban development. The seasonal rivers of Kitui provide suitable water for domestic, livestock and agricultural use, particularly small-scale irrigation. A majority of the population of Kitui county depends on the ephemeral river for water supply. In dry periods, water levels drop and water can only be found in scoop holes (holes dug in the riverbed). The water shortage is where NaBWIG, an abbreviation for Nature-based water infrastructures in Ethiopia and Kenya for #GlobalGoals (NaBWIG), focuses on. Its goal is to increase resilience through sustainable water supply with the use of stored water within ephemeral sand rivers (Karimi, 2018). This research is part of NaBWIG where, based on 2 months fieldwork trip to Kenya, an evaluation was done using Q-methodology. This study aimed to define which elements of water access are valued by people who use water from sand storage dams in two sub-regions in Kitui – Kenya. This research revealed the broad definition of access to water, specifically when zooming in to local sand dam utilization. Main elements that seem to be most important like distance, time, water quantity, water quality and also reliability of a water source. Other elements are also related to water access such as social capital, income and terrain. Results suggest that ‘one community’ does not exist in either of the regions. The results from the Q-method show different perspectives within both communities on both domestic and agricultural water use, with specifics of perspectives depending on whether one takes the respondents as a whole or analyses them per community. In both regions, comparable elements arise, but different groups appear too. These two ‘communities’ are diverse in perspectives and one must look at both regions with different ‘lenses’ as their position is different from each other. The researcher may force these people into groups, which then are called a community, but in reality, is still a group of people with different interests. The alignment of these different factor groups is important to ensure the community benefit the most of a sand dam structure, which does not stop after construction. This research aimed at creating a better understanding of the interplay of multiple factors regarding water access and provided a more thorough understanding of the dynamics of local communities and their appreciation of water access regarding sand storage dams. ... Read more

The Tsleil-Wautuh Nation (TWN) reserve, Sleil-Waututh, located at the north shore of the Burrard Inlet in Vancouver (British Columbia, Canada) is strongly influenced by climate change. Sea level rise, coastal flooding and shoreline erosion are contributing to loss of land, damages to infrastructure, ecosystem changes and exposure of historic sites with cultural value. The TWN are a First Nation, a recognized group of aboriginal people in Canada, and have lived in harmony on the lands and waters of the Burrard Inlet since time out of mind. As TWN has a sacred obligation to be caretakers of the land, they retained Kerr Wood Leidal (KWL) to conduct a climate change hazard and vulnerability assessment and to design a ten year climate change adaptation action plan. The existing conditions in the area are investigated from a technical, environmental and sociological point of view, including a study of the community context of the TWN. Climate change exposes the project area to hazards such as sea level rise, acidification and water temperature changes among others. After conducting a hazard assessment, the following climate change induced hazards are evaluated: Coastal flooding, coastal erosion, intertidal area change, ocean acidification, harmful algae blooms and other ocean conditions (water temperature, e.g.). The impact of waves and rising sea levels are assessed through an Xbeach model. The impact of harmful algae blooms and other ocean conditions are evaluated though literature research. The potential of four different approaches, varying from traditional to building with nature-based solutions, to mitigate the identified hazards are discussed: a rip rap, a nourishment, a salt marsh and a clam garden. They are evaluated based on technical, environmental, economic and social feasibility. For each alternative a trade-off exists between protection against the identified hazards – mainly between the ability of each of the solutions to prevent or mitigate coastal flooding and erosion while preserving the local ecosystem and intertidal area. All alternatives help the TWN in their own way and although further research has to be done, this report provides an insight in four possible alternatives that could support the process of developing a satisfactory solution for the coastal hazards that cause problems for the TWN people and their reserve. ... Read more

The Gezira irrigation scheme, in Sudan, stretches out south of Khartoum between the Blue Nile and the While Nile Rivers. For more than 95 years since its establishment in 1925, the scheme has been a significant asset to Sudan’s economy. It is considered one of the oldest and largest schemes in the world being served by one management body using surface gravity irrigation from a single source. For many years, the system has performed with high efficiency and was considered a good model example, both locally and internationally. In the last few decades the scheme has deteriorated. The water productivity records show declining trends, while more water is being withdrawn from Sennar dam. Farmers are complaining about water shortages and some fields are not reached at all. Authorities state severe damages in the system’s infrastructure, with about 85% of the system’s hydraulic works being damaged. The performance of operation is well below the required efficiency. The sedimentation issue has always been present in the system, especially in the minor canals, but has been severe in recent years. As a result, farmers tend to interfere in the operation of the system, as they are not satisfied with the management authorities. Therefore, the scheme’s operation situations changed accordingly, shifting from the original design approach into new – often undesired – situations. There have been many studies carried in the Gezira Irrigation scheme, in order to understand the reasons behind this deterioration and find sustainable solutions. Starting from the causes of the sedimentation issue and maintenance works, generating new methods of calculating the crop water requirements using remote sensing, influence of farmers’ practices on field level, change of management and institutions throughout the history, and many others. Yet, there is no sensible change seen on the ground. The main objective of this thesis is contribute to the researches done in the Gezira scheme by providing an understanding of how the canalization system’s respond to various water demands strategies. In recent years, there has been a noticeable improvement in methods used to determine crop water requirements using remote sensing. Coping with these improvements, a main question rises, to what extent these remote sensing approaches could be implemented in large irrigation schemes, taking the Gezira scheme as a case study. Determining water requirements is one thing, delivering the water through the canal system could be something else. In order to answer the above question, we first need to analyze the system we are studying. This step was carried through analyzing the current, general, performance of the Gezira scheme and comparing it to the initial design characteristics of the scheme using the MASSCOTE framework (FAO). Using the outcomes of the MASSCOTE evaluation, the thesis proceeded by generating a computer model of the canalization system, taking a major and minor canal as a representation for the water distribution system, and testing different water demands scenarios. This step provided insights into the operation of the canalization system on the level of major and minor canals. It was found that, within the boundaries of our model, implementing new remote sensing methods is practicable, assuming water is readily available at the offtake of the major canal. This conclusion takes into consideration the lengths of the canals and their locations regarding the overall scheme and the carrying capacity of each canals. ... Read more