M.J. de Vries
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1
Developing creative solutions to improve our surroundings is a key 21st-century competency. Design & Technology (D&T) education presents valuable opportunities to teach creativity as a skill. However, the ill-defined and context-dependent nature of design problems often makes it challenging for educators to adequately evaluate the creativity demonstrated in pupils’ solutions. Comparative judgment, which does not rely on a predetermined set of evaluative criteria, offers an alternative approach. In this study, we leveraged this method to investigate how 20 industrial design students, acting as judges, holistically assessed design ideas and prototypes produced by 201 pupils aged 10 to 14 in the Netherlands. Although creativity is acknowledged as central to design quality, it is not prioritized in many current D&T projects. To address this gap, we deliberately focused on evaluating the creativity evident in pupils’ designs. We further explored how judges’ evaluative considerations, coded as criteria, shifted from the beginning to the end of the comparative judgment process. Our findings from qualitative and quantitative analyses added to our understanding of the multifaceted process of evaluating creativity and provided practical insights into using comparative judgment as an assessment tool in design education.
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Developing creative solutions to improve our surroundings is a key 21st-century competency. Design & Technology (D&T) education presents valuable opportunities to teach creativity as a skill. However, the ill-defined and context-dependent nature of design problems often makes it challenging for educators to adequately evaluate the creativity demonstrated in pupils’ solutions. Comparative judgment, which does not rely on a predetermined set of evaluative criteria, offers an alternative approach. In this study, we leveraged this method to investigate how 20 industrial design students, acting as judges, holistically assessed design ideas and prototypes produced by 201 pupils aged 10 to 14 in the Netherlands. Although creativity is acknowledged as central to design quality, it is not prioritized in many current D&T projects. To address this gap, we deliberately focused on evaluating the creativity evident in pupils’ designs. We further explored how judges’ evaluative considerations, coded as criteria, shifted from the beginning to the end of the comparative judgment process. Our findings from qualitative and quantitative analyses added to our understanding of the multifaceted process of evaluating creativity and provided practical insights into using comparative judgment as an assessment tool in design education.
Curricular reforms are increasingly positioning design-based learning as an integral part of secondary school science education. This growing emphasis is posing challenges for science teachers. One such challenge concerns the formative assessment of student learning in a context known for its wide range of potential learning goals. This study sought to explore this underexamined area by investigating an experienced chemistry teacher’s formative assessment reasoning. We were specifically interested in the breadth of aspects of learning that a science teacher may focus on in a design context. We collected data during weekly reflection conversations with the teacher, conducted over the course of her implementation of a design project for 10th-grade chemistry education. Qualitative data analysis showed that the teacher monitored diverse aspects of learning, namely students’ chemical thinking, design practices, research practices, social interactions, ownership, behaviour and emotions. The case furthermore showed how the teacher connected different aspects of learning which could support her interpretation of student learning, but also demonstrated tensions between desired learning outcomes. The findings offer suggestions for future development of design-based learning frameworks, and for teacher educators who seek to support teachers’ formative assessment in contexts where design and science meet.
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Curricular reforms are increasingly positioning design-based learning as an integral part of secondary school science education. This growing emphasis is posing challenges for science teachers. One such challenge concerns the formative assessment of student learning in a context known for its wide range of potential learning goals. This study sought to explore this underexamined area by investigating an experienced chemistry teacher’s formative assessment reasoning. We were specifically interested in the breadth of aspects of learning that a science teacher may focus on in a design context. We collected data during weekly reflection conversations with the teacher, conducted over the course of her implementation of a design project for 10th-grade chemistry education. Qualitative data analysis showed that the teacher monitored diverse aspects of learning, namely students’ chemical thinking, design practices, research practices, social interactions, ownership, behaviour and emotions. The case furthermore showed how the teacher connected different aspects of learning which could support her interpretation of student learning, but also demonstrated tensions between desired learning outcomes. The findings offer suggestions for future development of design-based learning frameworks, and for teacher educators who seek to support teachers’ formative assessment in contexts where design and science meet.
Peer-to-peer dialogue can enhance students’ understanding of mathematics by stimulating active processing and articulation of knowledge. However, this type of interaction also places demands on working memory, which may hinder learning if cognitive load becomes excessive. To optimize classroom dialogue, it is important to distinguish between different types of cognitive load: intrinsic load (IL), extraneous load (EL), and germane load (GL). Existing self-report instruments do not account for the distinct cognitive demands associated with students’ roles as listeners or explainers. This study aimed to develop and validate a questionnaire to measure IL, EL, and GL separately for both listening and explaining roles during peer-to-peer dialogue in secondary mathematics classrooms. The development process involved a literature review, analysis of existing instruments, adaptation for adolescent learners, and integration of mathematical dialogue characteristics. The resulting instrument consists of 18 items, 9 for each role. To validate the instrument, two studies were conducted using peer instruction in Dutch secondary school classes (n = 65 and n = 32; ages 15-17). Principal component analysis confirmed a three-factor structure aligned with the three types of cognitive load for both roles. The results suggest that the questionnaire is a promising tool for measuring differentiated cognitive load during classroom dialogue. It may inform instructional design aimed at balancing cognitive demand and supporting effective peer interaction in mathematics education.
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Peer-to-peer dialogue can enhance students’ understanding of mathematics by stimulating active processing and articulation of knowledge. However, this type of interaction also places demands on working memory, which may hinder learning if cognitive load becomes excessive. To optimize classroom dialogue, it is important to distinguish between different types of cognitive load: intrinsic load (IL), extraneous load (EL), and germane load (GL). Existing self-report instruments do not account for the distinct cognitive demands associated with students’ roles as listeners or explainers. This study aimed to develop and validate a questionnaire to measure IL, EL, and GL separately for both listening and explaining roles during peer-to-peer dialogue in secondary mathematics classrooms. The development process involved a literature review, analysis of existing instruments, adaptation for adolescent learners, and integration of mathematical dialogue characteristics. The resulting instrument consists of 18 items, 9 for each role. To validate the instrument, two studies were conducted using peer instruction in Dutch secondary school classes (n = 65 and n = 32; ages 15-17). Principal component analysis confirmed a three-factor structure aligned with the three types of cognitive load for both roles. The results suggest that the questionnaire is a promising tool for measuring differentiated cognitive load during classroom dialogue. It may inform instructional design aimed at balancing cognitive demand and supporting effective peer interaction in mathematics education.
Introducing spatial thinking and lesson study:
Researcher's role in early childhood story-based design integration
Purpose
This study aims to investigate how a researcher supported early childhood (EC) educators in integrating spatial thinking into the curriculum through lesson study (LS). It was conducted in a context where both LS and spatial reasoning were unfamiliar. The study explores the facilitation strategies that initiated and sustained teacher dialogue about case pupils' spatial thinking. It further examines how these strategies contributed to professional learning across dimensions of satisfaction, knowledge, instructional practice and school-level change.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative case study approach was used, drawing on audio recordings of LS meetings, pupil artifacts, researcher reflections and field notes. Reflective thematic analysis traced how the researcher scaffolded teacher thinking and interaction across LS phases, with particular attention to discussions focused on case pupils' spatial reasoning.
Findings
Researcher support evolved from directive reassurance during the workshop to more facilitative prompting as teacher confidence increased across the LS cycles. Key mechanisms included reassurance, strategic questioning, mindset reframing and structured protocol for debriefing session and observation sheets to anchor discussions in pupil learning. Constraints such as staffing shortages and LS unfamiliarity were addressed with adaptations in the LS process.
Practical implications
Findings inform LS facilitation training by emphasizing gradual autonomy, structured reflection and teacher-led inquiry. The study also offers guidance for sustaining LS in under-resourced settings.
Originality/value
The study offers new insights into multi-role LS design and facilitation in EC education, especially for unfamiliar areas like spatial thinking. It shows how researchers can support teacher learning and facilitate processes that make such content visible, actionable and embedded in classrooms. ...
This study aims to investigate how a researcher supported early childhood (EC) educators in integrating spatial thinking into the curriculum through lesson study (LS). It was conducted in a context where both LS and spatial reasoning were unfamiliar. The study explores the facilitation strategies that initiated and sustained teacher dialogue about case pupils' spatial thinking. It further examines how these strategies contributed to professional learning across dimensions of satisfaction, knowledge, instructional practice and school-level change.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative case study approach was used, drawing on audio recordings of LS meetings, pupil artifacts, researcher reflections and field notes. Reflective thematic analysis traced how the researcher scaffolded teacher thinking and interaction across LS phases, with particular attention to discussions focused on case pupils' spatial reasoning.
Findings
Researcher support evolved from directive reassurance during the workshop to more facilitative prompting as teacher confidence increased across the LS cycles. Key mechanisms included reassurance, strategic questioning, mindset reframing and structured protocol for debriefing session and observation sheets to anchor discussions in pupil learning. Constraints such as staffing shortages and LS unfamiliarity were addressed with adaptations in the LS process.
Practical implications
Findings inform LS facilitation training by emphasizing gradual autonomy, structured reflection and teacher-led inquiry. The study also offers guidance for sustaining LS in under-resourced settings.
Originality/value
The study offers new insights into multi-role LS design and facilitation in EC education, especially for unfamiliar areas like spatial thinking. It shows how researchers can support teacher learning and facilitate processes that make such content visible, actionable and embedded in classrooms. ...
Purpose
This study aims to investigate how a researcher supported early childhood (EC) educators in integrating spatial thinking into the curriculum through lesson study (LS). It was conducted in a context where both LS and spatial reasoning were unfamiliar. The study explores the facilitation strategies that initiated and sustained teacher dialogue about case pupils' spatial thinking. It further examines how these strategies contributed to professional learning across dimensions of satisfaction, knowledge, instructional practice and school-level change.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative case study approach was used, drawing on audio recordings of LS meetings, pupil artifacts, researcher reflections and field notes. Reflective thematic analysis traced how the researcher scaffolded teacher thinking and interaction across LS phases, with particular attention to discussions focused on case pupils' spatial reasoning.
Findings
Researcher support evolved from directive reassurance during the workshop to more facilitative prompting as teacher confidence increased across the LS cycles. Key mechanisms included reassurance, strategic questioning, mindset reframing and structured protocol for debriefing session and observation sheets to anchor discussions in pupil learning. Constraints such as staffing shortages and LS unfamiliarity were addressed with adaptations in the LS process.
Practical implications
Findings inform LS facilitation training by emphasizing gradual autonomy, structured reflection and teacher-led inquiry. The study also offers guidance for sustaining LS in under-resourced settings.
Originality/value
The study offers new insights into multi-role LS design and facilitation in EC education, especially for unfamiliar areas like spatial thinking. It shows how researchers can support teacher learning and facilitate processes that make such content visible, actionable and embedded in classrooms.
This study aims to investigate how a researcher supported early childhood (EC) educators in integrating spatial thinking into the curriculum through lesson study (LS). It was conducted in a context where both LS and spatial reasoning were unfamiliar. The study explores the facilitation strategies that initiated and sustained teacher dialogue about case pupils' spatial thinking. It further examines how these strategies contributed to professional learning across dimensions of satisfaction, knowledge, instructional practice and school-level change.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative case study approach was used, drawing on audio recordings of LS meetings, pupil artifacts, researcher reflections and field notes. Reflective thematic analysis traced how the researcher scaffolded teacher thinking and interaction across LS phases, with particular attention to discussions focused on case pupils' spatial reasoning.
Findings
Researcher support evolved from directive reassurance during the workshop to more facilitative prompting as teacher confidence increased across the LS cycles. Key mechanisms included reassurance, strategic questioning, mindset reframing and structured protocol for debriefing session and observation sheets to anchor discussions in pupil learning. Constraints such as staffing shortages and LS unfamiliarity were addressed with adaptations in the LS process.
Practical implications
Findings inform LS facilitation training by emphasizing gradual autonomy, structured reflection and teacher-led inquiry. The study also offers guidance for sustaining LS in under-resourced settings.
Originality/value
The study offers new insights into multi-role LS design and facilitation in EC education, especially for unfamiliar areas like spatial thinking. It shows how researchers can support teacher learning and facilitate processes that make such content visible, actionable and embedded in classrooms.
Storybook driven design for enhancing spatial ability in early childhood
A lesson study approach
This study investigates the integration of spatial thinking into early childhood education through story-driven design activities and the use of a Lesson Study approach. Conducted in six Irish junior and senior infant classrooms across two schools with ten teachers, this research aimed to address the following research question: How can the Lesson Study approach support early childhood teachers in deepening their knowledge of their pupils, changing teaching practices, and impacting teacher self-efficacy, particularly in relation to spatial reasoning during story-based design activities? Qualitative data from classroom observations and teacher discussions indicate that teachers adapted their lesson strategies based on deeper insights into their students' spatial thinking. They improved the development of spatial design assignments and demonstrated enhanced self-efficacy in conducting spatialized design lessons. Lesson Study dynamics enhance teacher awareness related to design and technology projects, foster creative task identification, and challenge teacher perceptions. Our findings suggest that the Lesson Study processes implemented in this study could motivate teachers to integrate spatial thinking into their classrooms while still adhering to their curriculum. This approach effectively integrates spatial thinking into the curriculum, providing authentic design scenarios for pupils to develop spatial reasoning. These outcomes underscore the potential of Lesson Study for teacher professional development in early childhood spatial and design education.
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This study investigates the integration of spatial thinking into early childhood education through story-driven design activities and the use of a Lesson Study approach. Conducted in six Irish junior and senior infant classrooms across two schools with ten teachers, this research aimed to address the following research question: How can the Lesson Study approach support early childhood teachers in deepening their knowledge of their pupils, changing teaching practices, and impacting teacher self-efficacy, particularly in relation to spatial reasoning during story-based design activities? Qualitative data from classroom observations and teacher discussions indicate that teachers adapted their lesson strategies based on deeper insights into their students' spatial thinking. They improved the development of spatial design assignments and demonstrated enhanced self-efficacy in conducting spatialized design lessons. Lesson Study dynamics enhance teacher awareness related to design and technology projects, foster creative task identification, and challenge teacher perceptions. Our findings suggest that the Lesson Study processes implemented in this study could motivate teachers to integrate spatial thinking into their classrooms while still adhering to their curriculum. This approach effectively integrates spatial thinking into the curriculum, providing authentic design scenarios for pupils to develop spatial reasoning. These outcomes underscore the potential of Lesson Study for teacher professional development in early childhood spatial and design education.
Design activities are increasingly used in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education. Guiding students during these activities can be challenging for STEM teachers, who may be inexperienced in the field of design. In this study, we focused on a case of three chemistry teachers who implemented design projects in their classrooms. During the lessons, the students designed a self-heating or self-cooling cup, in which the energy effect of chemical reactions causes a heating or cooling effect on the cup’s contents. Through an in-depth analysis of the conversations between the teachers and student groups, we aim to understand how teachers verbally support students and any factors that may influence this. We used concepts from scaffolding theory to analyze the support. By organizing the data into segments based on these scaffolding concepts, we were able to characterize the different approaches taken by the teachers. The types of support varied; for example, the teacher might take control of the process or stimulate the students’ reasoning. The support appears to be adapted to the students, the lessons and the topics of the conversations. These are possible factors that may influence the way in which teachers support the students during design activities.
...
Design activities are increasingly used in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education. Guiding students during these activities can be challenging for STEM teachers, who may be inexperienced in the field of design. In this study, we focused on a case of three chemistry teachers who implemented design projects in their classrooms. During the lessons, the students designed a self-heating or self-cooling cup, in which the energy effect of chemical reactions causes a heating or cooling effect on the cup’s contents. Through an in-depth analysis of the conversations between the teachers and student groups, we aim to understand how teachers verbally support students and any factors that may influence this. We used concepts from scaffolding theory to analyze the support. By organizing the data into segments based on these scaffolding concepts, we were able to characterize the different approaches taken by the teachers. The types of support varied; for example, the teacher might take control of the process or stimulate the students’ reasoning. The support appears to be adapted to the students, the lessons and the topics of the conversations. These are possible factors that may influence the way in which teachers support the students during design activities.
In January 2025 it is exactly 25 years ago that I took over the editorship of the International Journal of Technology and Design Education from Edgar Jenkins. A lot has changed since then. In 2000 the journal was still published by Kluwer Academic Publishers. Later they were taken over by Springer. I remember that at first I used to get all articles sent to me by surface mail in threefold with envelopes to forward them to reviewers with envelopes for them to send me their reviews. It took more than a week for the articles to arrive at a reviewer in Australia, for instance, and another week before the reviews were in my office (excluding the time it took for the reviewer to write the review of course). And that was only the beginning of all the sending back and forth of articles, reviews and decision forms all by surface mail. I had a corner in my office with a high pile of articles and forms. What a relief it was when Internet could be used and later the Electronic Manager came. [...]
...
In January 2025 it is exactly 25 years ago that I took over the editorship of the International Journal of Technology and Design Education from Edgar Jenkins. A lot has changed since then. In 2000 the journal was still published by Kluwer Academic Publishers. Later they were taken over by Springer. I remember that at first I used to get all articles sent to me by surface mail in threefold with envelopes to forward them to reviewers with envelopes for them to send me their reviews. It took more than a week for the articles to arrive at a reviewer in Australia, for instance, and another week before the reviews were in my office (excluding the time it took for the reviewer to write the review of course). And that was only the beginning of all the sending back and forth of articles, reviews and decision forms all by surface mail. I had a corner in my office with a high pile of articles and forms. What a relief it was when Internet could be used and later the Electronic Manager came. [...]
Journal article
(2024)
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Caiwei Zhu, Remke Klapwijk, Miroslava Silva-Ordaz, Jeroen Spandaw, Marc J. de Vries
Spatial thinking is ubiquitous in design. Design education across all age groups encompasses a range of spatially challenging activities, such as forming and modifying mental representations of ideas, and visualizing the scenarios of design prototypes being used. While extensive research has examined the cognitive processes of spatial thinking and their relationships to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics learning, there remains a knowledge gap regarding the specific spatial thinking processes needed for open-ended problems, which may differ from those assessed in close-ended, analytical spatial tasks. To address this gap, we used educational design-based research to develop a nature-inspired, design-by-analogy project and investigate the spatial thinking processes of young, novice designers. 16 children from an international school in the Netherlands participated in this five-week design project. Multimodal evidence from classroom recordings and children’s design works were triangulated to offer insight into the key spatial thinking processes involved in their creation of nature-inspired, analogy-based design prototypes. Our results revealed spatial thinking processes that might not align with those assessed in conventional spatial tests and may be unique to design or open-ended problem-solving. These processes include abstracting spatial features to infer form-function relationships, retrieving a range of relevant visual information from memory, developing multiple possible analogical matches based on spatial features and relationships, elaborating and iterating on the design concepts and representations to make creative and suitable solutions for the design challenge, as well as visualizing design prototypes in practical usage scenarios. By highlighting the nuanced differences between spatial thinking in open-ended, divergent thinking tasks and conventional spatial tasks that demand single correct solutions, our research contributes to a deeper understanding of how children utilize spatial thinking in design and open-ended problem-solving contexts. Furthermore, this case study offers practical implications for scaffolding children's analogical reasoning and nurturing their spatial thinking in design education.
...
Spatial thinking is ubiquitous in design. Design education across all age groups encompasses a range of spatially challenging activities, such as forming and modifying mental representations of ideas, and visualizing the scenarios of design prototypes being used. While extensive research has examined the cognitive processes of spatial thinking and their relationships to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics learning, there remains a knowledge gap regarding the specific spatial thinking processes needed for open-ended problems, which may differ from those assessed in close-ended, analytical spatial tasks. To address this gap, we used educational design-based research to develop a nature-inspired, design-by-analogy project and investigate the spatial thinking processes of young, novice designers. 16 children from an international school in the Netherlands participated in this five-week design project. Multimodal evidence from classroom recordings and children’s design works were triangulated to offer insight into the key spatial thinking processes involved in their creation of nature-inspired, analogy-based design prototypes. Our results revealed spatial thinking processes that might not align with those assessed in conventional spatial tests and may be unique to design or open-ended problem-solving. These processes include abstracting spatial features to infer form-function relationships, retrieving a range of relevant visual information from memory, developing multiple possible analogical matches based on spatial features and relationships, elaborating and iterating on the design concepts and representations to make creative and suitable solutions for the design challenge, as well as visualizing design prototypes in practical usage scenarios. By highlighting the nuanced differences between spatial thinking in open-ended, divergent thinking tasks and conventional spatial tasks that demand single correct solutions, our research contributes to a deeper understanding of how children utilize spatial thinking in design and open-ended problem-solving contexts. Furthermore, this case study offers practical implications for scaffolding children's analogical reasoning and nurturing their spatial thinking in design education.
Integrating argumentation in physics inquiry
A design and evaluation study
This small-scale, qualitative study uses educational design research to explore how focusing on argumentation may contribute to students’ learning to engage in inquiry independently. Understanding inquiry as the construction of a scientifically cogent argument in support of a claim may encourage students to develop personal reasons for adhering to scientific criteria and to use these with understanding rather than by rote. An understanding of the characteristics of scientific evidence may clarify why doing inquiry in specific ways is important, in addition to the how. On the basis of five design principles—derived from literature—that integrate argumentation in inquiry and enhance learning through practical activities, we developed a teaching-learning sequence of five activities aimed at developing inquiry knowledge in lower secondary school students. By means of observations of a grade 9 physics class (N=23, aged 14–15), students’ answers to worksheets, and self-reflection questions, we explored whether the design principles resulted in the intended students’ actions and attitudes. We studied whether the activities stimulated students to engage in argumentation and to develop the targeted inquiry knowledge. The focus on argumentation, specifically through critical evaluation of the quality of evidence, persuaded students to evaluate whether what they thought, said, or claimed was “scientifically” justifiable and convincing. They gradually uncovered key characteristics of scientific evidence, understandings of what counts as convincing in science, and why. Rather than adopting and practicing the traditional inquiry skills, students in these activities developed a cognitive need and readiness for learning such skills. Of their own accord, they used their gained insights to make deliberate decisions about collecting reliable and valid data and substantiating the reliability of their claims. This study contributes to our understanding of how to enable students to successfully engage in inquiry by extending the theoretical framework for argumentation toward teaching inquiry and by developing a tested educational approach derived from it.
...
This small-scale, qualitative study uses educational design research to explore how focusing on argumentation may contribute to students’ learning to engage in inquiry independently. Understanding inquiry as the construction of a scientifically cogent argument in support of a claim may encourage students to develop personal reasons for adhering to scientific criteria and to use these with understanding rather than by rote. An understanding of the characteristics of scientific evidence may clarify why doing inquiry in specific ways is important, in addition to the how. On the basis of five design principles—derived from literature—that integrate argumentation in inquiry and enhance learning through practical activities, we developed a teaching-learning sequence of five activities aimed at developing inquiry knowledge in lower secondary school students. By means of observations of a grade 9 physics class (N=23, aged 14–15), students’ answers to worksheets, and self-reflection questions, we explored whether the design principles resulted in the intended students’ actions and attitudes. We studied whether the activities stimulated students to engage in argumentation and to develop the targeted inquiry knowledge. The focus on argumentation, specifically through critical evaluation of the quality of evidence, persuaded students to evaluate whether what they thought, said, or claimed was “scientifically” justifiable and convincing. They gradually uncovered key characteristics of scientific evidence, understandings of what counts as convincing in science, and why. Rather than adopting and practicing the traditional inquiry skills, students in these activities developed a cognitive need and readiness for learning such skills. Of their own accord, they used their gained insights to make deliberate decisions about collecting reliable and valid data and substantiating the reliability of their claims. This study contributes to our understanding of how to enable students to successfully engage in inquiry by extending the theoretical framework for argumentation toward teaching inquiry and by developing a tested educational approach derived from it.
Understanding and effectively using visual representations is important to learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Various techniques to visualize information, such as two- and three-dimensional graphs, diagrams, and models, not only expand our capacity to work with different types of information but also actively recruit our visual–spatial thinking. Data physicalization is emerging as a beginner-friendly approach to construct information visualization. Mapping intangible data onto tangible artifacts that possess visual, spatial, and physical properties demands an interplay of spatial thinking and hands-on manipulation. Much existing literature has explored using formatted infographics to aid learning and spatial thinking development. However, there is limited insight into how children may leverage their spatial thinking to create information visualizations, particularly tangible ones. This case study documented the data physicalization activities organized in two design classrooms of an international school in Netherlands, with 37 children aged 11–12. Seven themes relevant to spatial thinking were identified from multimodal evidence gathered from the data physicalization artifacts, classroom videos and recordings of children’s making process, and semi-structured interviews with children. Our findings suggested that these children generated various ideas to create visual–spatial forms for data with the materials at hand, such as mapping quantities to tangible materials of different sizes, using spatial ordinal arrangement, and unitizing materials to set visual parameters. Meanwhile, they evaluated and adjusted the visual–spatial properties of these materials according to the numerical data they had, crafting feasibility, and others’ spatial perspectives. What was particularly interesting in our findings was children’s iteration on their visual–spatial understandings of the intangible numerical values and the tangible materials throughout the embodied making processes. Overall, this study illustrated the different types of spatial thinking children applied to create their data physicalizations and offered insights into how embodied experiences accompanying the open-ended visualization challenge allowed children to explore and construct spatial understandings.
...
Understanding and effectively using visual representations is important to learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Various techniques to visualize information, such as two- and three-dimensional graphs, diagrams, and models, not only expand our capacity to work with different types of information but also actively recruit our visual–spatial thinking. Data physicalization is emerging as a beginner-friendly approach to construct information visualization. Mapping intangible data onto tangible artifacts that possess visual, spatial, and physical properties demands an interplay of spatial thinking and hands-on manipulation. Much existing literature has explored using formatted infographics to aid learning and spatial thinking development. However, there is limited insight into how children may leverage their spatial thinking to create information visualizations, particularly tangible ones. This case study documented the data physicalization activities organized in two design classrooms of an international school in Netherlands, with 37 children aged 11–12. Seven themes relevant to spatial thinking were identified from multimodal evidence gathered from the data physicalization artifacts, classroom videos and recordings of children’s making process, and semi-structured interviews with children. Our findings suggested that these children generated various ideas to create visual–spatial forms for data with the materials at hand, such as mapping quantities to tangible materials of different sizes, using spatial ordinal arrangement, and unitizing materials to set visual parameters. Meanwhile, they evaluated and adjusted the visual–spatial properties of these materials according to the numerical data they had, crafting feasibility, and others’ spatial perspectives. What was particularly interesting in our findings was children’s iteration on their visual–spatial understandings of the intangible numerical values and the tangible materials throughout the embodied making processes. Overall, this study illustrated the different types of spatial thinking children applied to create their data physicalizations and offered insights into how embodied experiences accompanying the open-ended visualization challenge allowed children to explore and construct spatial understandings.
Design activities are gaining interest as rich contexts for learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. STEM teachers may find this challenging however, as designing requires support that they are not used to providing. In a subject like chemistry, teachers would have to balance creativity and responsibility for the students with concept learning and safety in the classroom. In a case study, we analyzed the verbal interactions of three teachers with their students during design activities in the classroom, with the aim of understanding what teachers and students talk about and how chemistry teachers support the students with their designs. During the lesson, students worked on the design of a self-heating or self-cooling cup, while also performing chemistry experiments to learn about the energy effects of reactions. Such a lesson reflects what design activities in the chemistry classroom could look like. We described the topics that teachers and students talk about, revealing that teachers support students through several types of feedback and questions. We also found that teachers support design tasks in a more open, constructive, and encouraging way than is used for experiments and chemistry concepts, which are supported in a closed, clarifying, and steering manner.
...
Design activities are gaining interest as rich contexts for learning science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. STEM teachers may find this challenging however, as designing requires support that they are not used to providing. In a subject like chemistry, teachers would have to balance creativity and responsibility for the students with concept learning and safety in the classroom. In a case study, we analyzed the verbal interactions of three teachers with their students during design activities in the classroom, with the aim of understanding what teachers and students talk about and how chemistry teachers support the students with their designs. During the lesson, students worked on the design of a self-heating or self-cooling cup, while also performing chemistry experiments to learn about the energy effects of reactions. Such a lesson reflects what design activities in the chemistry classroom could look like. We described the topics that teachers and students talk about, revealing that teachers support students through several types of feedback and questions. We also found that teachers support design tasks in a more open, constructive, and encouraging way than is used for experiments and chemistry concepts, which are supported in a closed, clarifying, and steering manner.
Defining and assessing understandings of evidence with the assessment rubric for physics inquiry
Towards integration of argumentation and inquiry
Physics inquiry can be interpreted as the construction of a cogent argument in which students apply inquiry knowledge and knowledge of physics to the systematic collection of relevant, valid, and reliable data, creating optimal scientific support for a conclusion that answers the research question. In learning how to devise, conduct and evaluate a rigorous physics inquiry, students should learn to choose and apply suitable techniques and adhere to scientific conventions that guarantee the collection of such data. However, they also need to acquire and apply an understanding of how to justify their choices and present an optimally convincing argument in support of their conclusion. In this modified and augmented Delphi study we present a view of inquiry knowledge and a way to assess it that acknowledges both of these components. Using our own expertise with teaching physics inquiry and using curriculum documents on physics inquiry, “inquiry knowledge” is deconstructed as a set of “understandings of evidence” (UOE)—insights and views that an experimental researcher relies on in constructing and evaluating scientific evidence. While insights cannot be observed directly, we argue that their presence can be inferred from a student’s actions and decisions in inquiry, inferred with more definitude as a more explicit and adequate justification is provided. This set of UOE is presented and validated as an adequate, coherent, partially overlapping set of learning goals for introductory inquiry learning. We specify conceivable types of actions and decisions expected in inquiry as descriptors of five attainment levels, providing an approach to assessing the presence and application of inquiry knowledge. The resulting construct, the assessment rubric for physics inquiry, is validated in this study. It distinguishes nineteen UOE divided over six phases of inquiry. Preliminary results suggesting a high degree of ecological validity are presented and evaluated. Several directions for future research are proposed.
...
Physics inquiry can be interpreted as the construction of a cogent argument in which students apply inquiry knowledge and knowledge of physics to the systematic collection of relevant, valid, and reliable data, creating optimal scientific support for a conclusion that answers the research question. In learning how to devise, conduct and evaluate a rigorous physics inquiry, students should learn to choose and apply suitable techniques and adhere to scientific conventions that guarantee the collection of such data. However, they also need to acquire and apply an understanding of how to justify their choices and present an optimally convincing argument in support of their conclusion. In this modified and augmented Delphi study we present a view of inquiry knowledge and a way to assess it that acknowledges both of these components. Using our own expertise with teaching physics inquiry and using curriculum documents on physics inquiry, “inquiry knowledge” is deconstructed as a set of “understandings of evidence” (UOE)—insights and views that an experimental researcher relies on in constructing and evaluating scientific evidence. While insights cannot be observed directly, we argue that their presence can be inferred from a student’s actions and decisions in inquiry, inferred with more definitude as a more explicit and adequate justification is provided. This set of UOE is presented and validated as an adequate, coherent, partially overlapping set of learning goals for introductory inquiry learning. We specify conceivable types of actions and decisions expected in inquiry as descriptors of five attainment levels, providing an approach to assessing the presence and application of inquiry knowledge. The resulting construct, the assessment rubric for physics inquiry, is validated in this study. It distinguishes nineteen UOE divided over six phases of inquiry. Preliminary results suggesting a high degree of ecological validity are presented and evaluated. Several directions for future research are proposed.
Secondary school students often only use the rules for doing scientific inquiry when prompted, as if they fail to see the point of doing so. This qualitative design study explores conditions to address this problem in school science inquiry. Dutch students (N = 22, aged 14–15) repeatedly consider the quality of their work: in a conventional, guided inquiry approach; by evaluating their conclusion in terms of the contextual purpose of the investigation; as consumers of knowledge facing the (hypothetical) risk of applying the findings in the real world. By gauging students’ confidence in the inquiry’s trustworthiness, we established that, while each confrontation instigated some students to (re)consider the quality of their inquiry, the final stage had the greatest impact. Students came to see that finding trustworthy results is essential, requiring scientific standards. The scientific quality of their inquiries was described, weaknesses identified and compared with the improvements students themselves proposed for their inquiries. While the improvemens were expressed in non-specific terms these align with a scientific perspective. Students now wanted to find trustworthy answers by exploiting scientific standards. In enabling students to engage successfully in basic scientific inquiry, finding ways to establish students’ mental readiness for attending to the quality of their scientific claims, and of personalised scientific criteria for their assessment, is indispensable.
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Secondary school students often only use the rules for doing scientific inquiry when prompted, as if they fail to see the point of doing so. This qualitative design study explores conditions to address this problem in school science inquiry. Dutch students (N = 22, aged 14–15) repeatedly consider the quality of their work: in a conventional, guided inquiry approach; by evaluating their conclusion in terms of the contextual purpose of the investigation; as consumers of knowledge facing the (hypothetical) risk of applying the findings in the real world. By gauging students’ confidence in the inquiry’s trustworthiness, we established that, while each confrontation instigated some students to (re)consider the quality of their inquiry, the final stage had the greatest impact. Students came to see that finding trustworthy results is essential, requiring scientific standards. The scientific quality of their inquiries was described, weaknesses identified and compared with the improvements students themselves proposed for their inquiries. While the improvemens were expressed in non-specific terms these align with a scientific perspective. Students now wanted to find trustworthy answers by exploiting scientific standards. In enabling students to engage successfully in basic scientific inquiry, finding ways to establish students’ mental readiness for attending to the quality of their scientific claims, and of personalised scientific criteria for their assessment, is indispensable.
Characterizing conceptual understanding during design-based learning
Analyzing students' design talk and drawings using the chemical thinking framework
Design-based learning is considered a powerful way to help students apply and develop understanding of science concepts, but research has shown that the success of this approach is not a given. Examining students' understanding of science concepts in various design-based learning contexts has thus continued to be an important field of research. To help advance such work, we explored the affordances of a novel analytic approach for studying data gathered in design-based learning classrooms. We used the “chemical thinking framework,” specifically its “conceptual sophistication” dimension, to analyze 10th-grade, chemistry students' design talk and drawings. We gathered this data during small-group design planning and drawing activities in the classrooms of two teachers whose students were designing a product that harnesses chemical energy to change the temperature of a beverage or snack. The findings demonstrate that this analytic approach was able to reveal that students (implicitly) drew on their understanding of several chemistry concepts while designing. Moreover, it showed that students could use everyday as well as more sophisticated understandings regarding a given chemistry concept while designing. This study furthermore unveiled differences in what and how students' design talk and drawings may reveal use of conceptual understanding, and it showed that different student teams may use a unique combination of understandings during design planning and drawing. We describe how this study's analytic approach complements existing approaches in design-based learning research, and how our findings provide implications for research and practice.
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Design-based learning is considered a powerful way to help students apply and develop understanding of science concepts, but research has shown that the success of this approach is not a given. Examining students' understanding of science concepts in various design-based learning contexts has thus continued to be an important field of research. To help advance such work, we explored the affordances of a novel analytic approach for studying data gathered in design-based learning classrooms. We used the “chemical thinking framework,” specifically its “conceptual sophistication” dimension, to analyze 10th-grade, chemistry students' design talk and drawings. We gathered this data during small-group design planning and drawing activities in the classrooms of two teachers whose students were designing a product that harnesses chemical energy to change the temperature of a beverage or snack. The findings demonstrate that this analytic approach was able to reveal that students (implicitly) drew on their understanding of several chemistry concepts while designing. Moreover, it showed that students could use everyday as well as more sophisticated understandings regarding a given chemistry concept while designing. This study furthermore unveiled differences in what and how students' design talk and drawings may reveal use of conceptual understanding, and it showed that different student teams may use a unique combination of understandings during design planning and drawing. We describe how this study's analytic approach complements existing approaches in design-based learning research, and how our findings provide implications for research and practice.
The Future of Technology Education in the ‘Low Lands’
Experts’ Views in Flanders and the Netherlands
In 2020 an article about USA experts’ opinions on the future of technology education was published. Several concerns were expressed by the experts in the Delphi study that had been conducted, such as a shortage of teachers and funding. From the start of the study in USA the idea was to conduct similar studies in other countries. In Finland such a study has also been done but the outcomes have not been published yet. It is interesting to see to what extent the outcomes are USA specific or more broadly valid. To find that out a similar study was done also in Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) and the Netherlands. It became clear that there are similarities between the USA outcomes but also differences. Most of those differences can be explained by taking into account the local developments in the different countries
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In 2020 an article about USA experts’ opinions on the future of technology education was published. Several concerns were expressed by the experts in the Delphi study that had been conducted, such as a shortage of teachers and funding. From the start of the study in USA the idea was to conduct similar studies in other countries. In Finland such a study has also been done but the outcomes have not been published yet. It is interesting to see to what extent the outcomes are USA specific or more broadly valid. To find that out a similar study was done also in Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) and the Netherlands. It became clear that there are similarities between the USA outcomes but also differences. Most of those differences can be explained by taking into account the local developments in the different countries
Learning to engage in scientific inquiry is an important goal in secondary physics education. However, attaining this learning goal continues to be a challenge. We addressed this problem by devising and testing a teaching sequence that aims at developing students’ (aged 14-15) understanding of and adherence to scientific criteria. We observed, that after going through this sequence, the students' critical attitude evolved and they developed basic understandings of how to conduct a physics inquiry. They started to substantiate the decisions made in their inquiries. The teaching sequence thus seems a suitable starting point for engaging young students in scientific inquiry.
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Learning to engage in scientific inquiry is an important goal in secondary physics education. However, attaining this learning goal continues to be a challenge. We addressed this problem by devising and testing a teaching sequence that aims at developing students’ (aged 14-15) understanding of and adherence to scientific criteria. We observed, that after going through this sequence, the students' critical attitude evolved and they developed basic understandings of how to conduct a physics inquiry. They started to substantiate the decisions made in their inquiries. The teaching sequence thus seems a suitable starting point for engaging young students in scientific inquiry.
This paper explores students’ ability to analyse and interpret empirical data as inadequate data analysis skills and understandings may contribute to the renowned disappointing outcomes of practical work in secondary school physics. Selected competences, derived from a collection of leading curricula, are explored through interviews and practical tasks, each consisting of three probes. The 51 students, aged 15 and commencing post-compulsory science education in the Netherlands, were able to carry out basic skills such as collecting data and representing these. In interpreting the data in terms of the investigated phenomenon or situation however, performance was weak. Students often appeared to be unable to identify the crucial features of a given graph. Conclusions based on the data were often tautological or superficial, lacking salient features. Students failed to infer implications from the data, to interpret data at a higher level of abstraction, or to specify limitations to the validity of the analysis or conclusions. The findings imply that the students’ understanding of data-analysis should be developed further before they can engage successfully in more ‘open’ practical work. The study offers a collection of activities that may help to address the situation, suggesting a baseline for guided development of data analysis abilities.
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This paper explores students’ ability to analyse and interpret empirical data as inadequate data analysis skills and understandings may contribute to the renowned disappointing outcomes of practical work in secondary school physics. Selected competences, derived from a collection of leading curricula, are explored through interviews and practical tasks, each consisting of three probes. The 51 students, aged 15 and commencing post-compulsory science education in the Netherlands, were able to carry out basic skills such as collecting data and representing these. In interpreting the data in terms of the investigated phenomenon or situation however, performance was weak. Students often appeared to be unable to identify the crucial features of a given graph. Conclusions based on the data were often tautological or superficial, lacking salient features. Students failed to infer implications from the data, to interpret data at a higher level of abstraction, or to specify limitations to the validity of the analysis or conclusions. The findings imply that the students’ understanding of data-analysis should be developed further before they can engage successfully in more ‘open’ practical work. The study offers a collection of activities that may help to address the situation, suggesting a baseline for guided development of data analysis abilities.
Feedback perceptions
Preliminary analysis of semistructured group interviews with first-year bachelor students of Computer Science
This full paper reports on research into feedback perceptions. In recent years enrolment in Engineering Education went up and the number of international students increased, leading to larger classes and greater variety in prior education within the classroom. Literature review reveals large classes lead to fewer opportunities for students to interact with their teachers and receive high quality formative feedback. Feedback helps students to reflect on the quality of their work. Engineering Education is characterized by overloaded, heavily scaffolded curricula, and learning activities; it is paramount to provide students with feedback they perceive as useful and meaningful. The larger diversity in the classroom means there is a larger diversity in feedback perceptions that needs to be taken into account when providing feedback. In this work we present the preliminary outcomes of a study that was informed by the following research question: How do first-year bachelor students perceive feedback? We performed multiple semistructured interviews with 17 first-year students in computer science during their first semester, and aimed to collect data on the students' lived experiences and the spread of student realities, using a phenomenological approach. The preliminary results show that there are many essential aspects that influence students' feedback perceptions. Study shows that such aspects as large class and relationships with teacher play very important role in developing certain feedback perceptions amongst students.
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This full paper reports on research into feedback perceptions. In recent years enrolment in Engineering Education went up and the number of international students increased, leading to larger classes and greater variety in prior education within the classroom. Literature review reveals large classes lead to fewer opportunities for students to interact with their teachers and receive high quality formative feedback. Feedback helps students to reflect on the quality of their work. Engineering Education is characterized by overloaded, heavily scaffolded curricula, and learning activities; it is paramount to provide students with feedback they perceive as useful and meaningful. The larger diversity in the classroom means there is a larger diversity in feedback perceptions that needs to be taken into account when providing feedback. In this work we present the preliminary outcomes of a study that was informed by the following research question: How do first-year bachelor students perceive feedback? We performed multiple semistructured interviews with 17 first-year students in computer science during their first semester, and aimed to collect data on the students' lived experiences and the spread of student realities, using a phenomenological approach. The preliminary results show that there are many essential aspects that influence students' feedback perceptions. Study shows that such aspects as large class and relationships with teacher play very important role in developing certain feedback perceptions amongst students.