This systematic literature review critically examines the application of digital technologies in architectural heritage risk management from 2014 to 2024, focusing exclusively on English-language publications. As the significance of architectural heritage continues to be recognized globally, there is an increasing shift towards integrating digital solutions to ensure its preservation and management. This paper explores the evolution and application of digital technologies such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and advanced imaging techniques within the field. It highlights how these technologies have facilitated the non-destructive evaluation of heritage sites and enhanced accessibility and interaction through virtual and augmented reality applications. By synthesizing data from various case studies and scholarly articles, the review identifies current trends and the expanding scope of digital interventions in heritage conservation. It discusses the interplay between traditional conservation approaches and modern technological solutions, providing insights into their complementary roles. The analysis also addresses the challenges and limitations encountered in the digital preservation of architectural heritage, such as data integration, the compatibility of different technologies, and the need for more comprehensive frameworks to guide the implementation of digital tools in heritage conservation practices. Ultimately, this review underscores the transformative impact of digital technology in managing architectural heritage risks, suggesting directions for future research and the potential for innovative applications in the field.

In 2022, the Netherlands introduced ‘water and soil’ as a guiding principle for spatial planning, aiding the country's goal for climate resilience by 2050. Applying it requires integrating subsurface data, spatial planning, and climate adaptation. Despite existing subsurface models, no cohesive approach links them to spatial planning. This paper assesses current models and identifies data requirements. Key barriers include data accessibility and standardization. To address this, plan information was standardized using a proposed Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) Part 5 climate adaptation profile. Additionally, a digital tool, CLIMACAT, was developed to make relevant subsurface data accessible for climate adaptation design.

This paper investigates the role of 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) within point cloud–dominated workflows for modern architectural heritage digitization. While 3DGS enables real-time, photorealistic visualization, its integration into LiDAR-based documentation pipelines remains underexplored. Using Bouwpub, a modern heritage building in the Netherlands, as a case study, the paper compares 3DGS and LiDAR across data acquisition and preservation, visualization, semantic segmentation, and dissemination. Results show that 3DGS offers superior visual expressiveness and user responsiveness, whereas LiDAR provides greater structural accuracy and segmentation reliability. Based on these findings, two integration strategies are proposed: a Blender-based multi-angle rendering workflow and a Level of Detail 3DGS (LOD3DGS) pipeline. Moving from isolated assessment to applied integration, the study positions 3DGS as a complementary visualization and dissemination module rather than a replacement. This hybrid approach supports immersive, scalable, and semantically enriched digital heritage systems, offering new directions for enhancing both expert documentation and public engagement.

Over the past fifteen years, LGAF, GLII, and SDGs frameworks have jointly shaped a complementary global land governance monitoring system. However, challenges remain in data fragmentation and standardised indicator computation. This study explores how ISO 19152 LADM provides a unified technical foundation to model and monitor global land indicators. It develops a standardised conceptual model with UML-based implementation and proposes a modular indicator computation architecture based on interface classes and reusable logic components. The proposed approach supports scalable reporting, enhances indicator operationalisation, and bridges the gap between global policy frameworks and practical land administration systems at the national level.

3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) is an advanced 3D representation method that enhances point clouds by incorporating spectral image content, enabling high-fidelity heritage documentation. A 3DGS visualization presents these enriched Gaussians, ensuring high geometric accuracy, detailed texture representation, and efficient spatial reconstruction, thereby enhancing both precision and efficiency in digital heritage preservation. This paper applies 3DGS to modern architectural heritage, combining UAV-based data acquisition with advanced rendering techniques. Using the Delft University of Technology Aula and Library buildings as case study, the research establishes a workflow for efficient heritage documentation and visualization.

The need for 3D Land Administration Systems (LAS) is growing. In this respect, research is carried out in the field of 3D LAS with respect to data sources, registration of 3D Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities and dissemination services. Within this context, BIM/IFC models are considered promising sources for 3D LAS, even though the reuse of such models from practice has not yet been examined adequately. Evaluating BIM/IFC-models from practice is crucial, since they are created for different purposes, fulfilling various design criteria. This paper investigates the technical challenges encountered when using real-world BIM/IFC-models for apartment rights’ registration in a 3D LAS. It addresses the validation of five Dutch real-world BIM/IFC-models against four technical criteria, namely: existence of IfcSpace; geometric validity; no overlap and georeferencing. The results of the validation show that the collected BIM/IFC-models lack georeference, IfcSpace and a reference to attributes related to the respective legal units in the Dutch 3D LAS. After validation the models are stored in a 3D LAS Database management system (DBMS), in which the legal spaces are enriched with information of the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRR’s) in line with the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM - ISO 19152:2012). The contents of the 3D LAS DBMS are visualised in a web viewer. Additionally, the design for a webservice is introduced, aiming to automate the process of validation, conversion and visualisation. The paper concludes with recommendations and guidelines for creators of BIM/IFC-models based on the outcome of the validation, as well as challenges and recommendations for implementing a validation webservice.

Efficient vario-scale representation is important in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and cartographic generalization, particularly when transitioning 2D features into 1D or 0D representations. Traditional approaches often introduce topological inconsistencies and abrupt transitions between scales. This paper presents a novel method for vario-scale representation by integrating the Straight Skeleton Network (SSN), Dual Half-Edge (DHE) structure, and Space-Scale Cube (SSC). The straight skeleton enables hierarchical polygon decomposition, ensuring smooth feature transitions across scales. The DHE structure maintains topological consistency, supports dynamic updates, and allows structured connectivity between spatial features. The SSC framework organizes these transformations within a volumetric model, ensuring seamless scale transitions. The proposed approach is tested on various polygonal configurations, demonstrating its effectiveness in preserving spatial coherence, feature continuity, and structural integrity. This research contributes to multi-scale GIS modeling, automated map generalization, and spatial data structuring.

This special issue on the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) and 3D Land Administration (3D LA) containsthe eight best, updated papers from the FIG’s (International Federation of Surveyors) 12th International Workshop onLADM & 3D LA. The 3DLA2024 Workshop is one of the activities of the LADM & 3D LA Working Group (WG), a joint initiat-ive of FIG Commission 3 (Spatial Information Management) and Commission 7 (Cadastre and Land Management). [...]

This paper enhances the Sarawak LADM Country Profile by proposing a structured workflow for mapping IFC elements (e.g. IfcSpace, IfcWall, IfcSlab) to LADM classes to improve the representation of legal space boundaries. The methodology focuses on extracting legal space information from IFC models, mapping it to LADM using Enterprise Architect, and structuring the data for future integration with PostgreSQL. The mapping framework supports strata title management and 3D cadastral in Sarawak. Additionally, this study outlines a conceptual workflow for visualising legal space boundaries using CesiumJS. The proposed approach enhances data interoperability between BIM and land administration, advancing BIM-driven cadastral systems.

Estimating the losses in the immediate aftermath of an earthquake is a key component of seismic response. Seismic rapid-loss estimates provide first responders with a prediction of where and what to prepare for. Improving the precision of quick loss estimates requires an estimate of how a buildings in the affected zone may have reacted to an event. Structural response prediction models are a novel approach to estimating building response from the observed displacement of instrumented buildings. Current SRPMs are built on relatively small databases but offer potential for expansion. There exists no robust building-specific database which could facilitate the construction of these models. As a reaction to this gap, this study applies, abstractly and concretely, the OGC SensorThings data model to building seismograph records. The harmonized records form part of a proposed abstract and concrete Structural Response Prediction Model to make estimates of building-response on other un-instrumented buildings. The utility of a abstracted observation data-model and pipeline is shown, with the potential for unifying existing data-sources. The work shall show that the OGC SensorThings integrates generally well, with some limitations, with the requirements of seismic observation record keeping.

As urban environments become increasingly vertical, Land Administration Systems (LAS) must support complex 3D spatial representations. While Building Information Models (BIM) offer such capabilities, they are not always available. This paper investigates an alternative approach using point clouds for 3D LAS, focusing on the integration of scanned cadastral floor plans and airborne LiDAR from the Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland (AHN). We present a semi-automated pipeline that extracts floorplan geometries, segments and enhances AHN data, and synthesizes room-level point clouds. Results from a case study in Rotterdam demonstrate the potential of this approach in the absence of BIM, supporting legal space definition and public visualization. However, challenges such as misalignment due to occlusion in AHN data and inconsistent quality in older floor plan drawings affect the accuracy and automation of the process. The synthetic point clouds include room-level attributes, enabling a seamless integration with AHN, offering a representation of real-world features such as building facades, walls, and fences, which often delineate cadastral boundaries.

This research explores the automation of compliance checks in the early stages ofspatial planning by integrating Industry Foundation Classes (ISO 16739) withthe Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) Part 5: Spatial Plan Information (ISO 19152-5). Traditional planning processes rely on manual assessments,making them time-consuming, prone to errors, and inefficient. While recentresearch has focused primarily on automating the permitting phase, this studyaddresses an earlier step: verifying spatial plans against regulatoryframeworks. By introducing a standardized approach, the research aims toenhance data management, improve interoperability, and ensure adherence tointernational standards. Automating early compliance checks – such as verifyingbuilding height restrictions or required distances between structures – helpsstreamline the planning process, ensuring that only plans meeting regulatoryrequirements advance to the design approval phase. Estonia is selected as acase study due to its highly developed digital infrastructure and commitment toimproving e-government services.

Point cloud data contains abundant information besides XYZ, such as Level of Importance (LoI) and intensity. These non-spatial dimensions are also frequently used and queried. Therefore, developing an efficient nD solution for managing and querying point clouds is imperative. Previous researchers have developed PlainSFC that maps both nD points and queries into a one-dimensional Space Filling Curve (SFC) space and uses B+-tree for indexing. However, when computing SFC ranges for selection, PlainSFC subdivides the nD space mechanically to approach the query window without considering the point distribution. Then, excessive ranges are generated in vacant areas, and ranges generated in dense point areas are coarse. Consequently, a large number of false positives are selected, slowing down the whole querying process. This paper develops a new solution called HistSFC to resolve the issue. HistSFC builds an nD-histogram which records point data distribution, and uses it to compute ranges for selecting data. Also, this paper discovers a novel statistical metric, Cumulative Hypercubic Coverage (CHC), to measure the uniformity of the point cloud data. Theory is established and it indicates that the nD-histogram is more beneficial when CHC is smaller. Thus, CHC can be used to guide the building of HistSFC. In addition, the paper conducts simulations and benchmark tests to examine the improvement on PlainSFC. It turns out that using the nD-histogram can decrease the false positive rate by orders of magnitude. HistSFC is also evaluated against state-of-the-art solutions. The result shows that HistSFC leads the performance in nearly all the tests.

This research explores the integration of IFC with LADM Part 5 Spatial Plan Information (ISO DIS 19152-5) to standardize BIM-based permit checking processes, focusing on a case study from Estonia. Land Administration Systems (LAS) are crucial in spatial development, managing land-related information. Rapid urbanization necessitates efficient space management, promoting the adoption of digital technologies in the Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector. The integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) presents opportunities for enhanced collaboration and data management. The main aim is to enhance efficiency, interoperability, and standardization in the compliance checks between different plan levels (e.g., Detailed Plan vs Mater Plan) by incorporating LADM Part 5 into digital frameworks. Traditional permit processes are often manual, time-consuming, and prone to errors. By integrating LADM Part 5 with IFC data, this research aims to create a standardized approach that not only improves data management and facilitates seamless information exchange but also maximizes industry and technical support to ensure compliance with international standards.

The methodology involves several key steps. First, a country profile for Estonia using LADM Part 5 is developed, tailored to the specific needs of the Estonian LAS. This profile integrates with PLANK, the Estonian spatial plan database, incorporating how Estonia acquires, stores, and requires data in their spatial plans. Next, a PostgreSQL database is created to store this profile. Pilot Detailed Plan datasets encoded in IFC format are then imported into the database using FME scripts, mapping the data to relevant sections. This integrated database supports digital permitting processes, specifically plan compliance checks between different levels of spatial plans. Throughout the research, the country profile is refined based on the optimizations of the database, driven by the specific requirements of the input data processed through FME scripts. Given that LADM is a standardized model, the database enforces specific data structures, ensuring processed data is valuable and relevant. The FME scripts facilitate this process, ensuring the data extracted from the database is standardized and user-friendly. Constraints such as maximum building height restrictions are pre-processed and stored within the database, enabling users to access this information without manually reviewing raw plan data. Later, the database was sampled using pilot datasets, with the tools and scripts made available on the research’s GitHub repository. After storing the spatial plan data in the database, data can be directly accessed by scripts designed to execute compliance checks between Detailed Plans and Master Plans, as shown in the Estonia case study. Although developing these specific checks is beyond this research's scope, the work was structured to integrate smoothly with the processes used in the Estonia case study.

Preliminary findings show that combining LADM with IFC improves data representation, enhances interoperability, and establishes a consistent standard for compliance checks between Master and Detailed Plans. This research contributes to developing standardized, reliable, and efficient permit checking systems, with important implications for urban planning and land management.

Cadastral surveying involves the delineation of property boundaries and the extent and documentation of easements and restrictions (imposed by private or public law), forming the foundation for Land Administration (LA). Survey models and processes constitute vital parts of Cadastres and Land Administration Systems (LASs). However, these models are often inadequately documented and lack standardization in practice. To address the global diversity and complexity of legal and administrative challenges in LA, standardization efforts have yielded the ISO 19152:2012 (ISO, 2012) Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), the Global Land Tool Network's (GLTN) Social Tenure Domain Model (STDM), and the OGC LandInfra/InfraGML standard. The current edition of the LADM focuses on standardised conceptual modelling of LA-related information, including a dedicated sub-package for Spatial and Surveying representation. As part of the ongoing LADM revision, a refined survey model is being developed to support a broad range of surveying and data acquisition approaches and levels of accuracy. Recognizing that surveying technology is not bound by national practices and regulations, this paper focuses specifically on the surveying aspect of LADM. It illustrates that the proposed refined survey model is applicable not only to conventional real property formation but also to participatory land rights recordation processes. The approach adopted in this research is technology-neutral, accommodating the ongoing evolution of surveying technology. It offers support for a broad range of surveying and data acquisition approaches, with varying levels of accuracy. As the demand for high-precision positioning has been persistent within the land mapping and surveying community, particularly since the initial adoption of GPS, aiming to achieve centimetre-level accuracies (initially confined to local services), the paper addresses the fundamental principles of the High Accuracy Service (HAS) concept within the proposed model. The main results presented in this paper are the conceptual model of the refined survey model of LADM Edition II (ISO19152–2), as well as an abstract, reference, cadastral surveying workflow following the principles of the proposed model.

As urban architectural environments become increasingly complex and densely populated, the demand for precise registration of legal statuses, encompassing both private and public interests, has become more urgent. Traditional 2D cadastral registration systems are increasingly inadequate for addressing the multifaceted and vertical nature of modern urban landscapes. These systems are limited in scope and unable to fully capture the intricacies of multi-level property rights, overlapping parcels, and underground constructions.

This study uses a BIM/IFC model for the building's physical representation. The party and Rights, Restrictions, and Responsibilities (RRRs) data are stored in a DBMS following ISO 19152-2 (Land Administration Domain Model, LADM) All data and the building location are fictitious and represent the most important categories of Land Administration cases. Visualization and interaction is achieved in 3D over the web using Cesium JS, an extensible globe viewer.
Unlike earlier 3D cadastral systems, this research has developed a new 3D Land Administration prototype based on the complete scope of LADM and not just focusing on the 3D spatial information. The objective is to explore improved methods for analyzing and visualizing RRRs in complex buildings. Novel techniques include presenting UML instance-level LADM diagrams for selected parties and/or apartments, showing RRRs and BAUnits linking them to the spatial units. The study further introduces a new method for displaying surrounding buildings at varying Level of Detail (LoD), with closer buildings rendered in higher detail and more distant buildings shown in less detail. This selective detailing enhances both performance and clarity in visualizations.

A key feature of this digital twin system is its real-time update capability. The prototype developed in this study supports the updating of party and rights information in the backend database, accurately reflecting these updates in the public front-end version. This ensures the maintenance and visualization of the most current property rights data. The system also integrates sunlight simulation, which is crucial for urban planning, architectural design, and aiding buyer decision-making. The prototype is (still) online available and via a usability study evaluated.

Change detection in the built environment is essential for sustainable development practices including Urban Planning and Development, Environmental Monitoring, and Conservation. Change detection provides valuable insights into dynamic processes, facilitates informed decision making, and supports sustainable development initiatives. Point clouds serve as foundational data sources for change detection in built environments, enabling analysts to detect, quantify, and interpret spatial changes with unparalleled accuracy and granularity. By leveraging the inherent characteristics of point clouds, researchers and practitioners can gain valuable insights into dynamic processes, inform decision making, and foster sustainable development in an ever-evolving built environment. We present the preliminary results of cloud-to-cloud (c2c) distance calculations for further change detection analysis of the entire Netherlands. This study utilises point cloud data from AHN2, 3, and 4 (Actueel Hoogtebestand Nederland1, The Netherlands). A method based on a 3D space-filling curve (SFC) was developed to calculate the c2c distances between AHN2, 3, and 4. This SFC method will allow change detection analysis to be carried out for the entire Netherlands. The change detection analysis outcomes can be accessed for future analysis in Potree2, a web-based point cloud rendered for large point clouds. The final implementation will allow the visualisation of AHN point clouds and their attributes, among which is the change in detection-related information. This research contributes to sustainable development practices by offering enhanced spatial insights and informed decision-making tools for further analysis and monitoring of the (built) environment in the Netherlands. [...]

This paper expands the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) Sarawak Country Profile by incorporating legal space details from Building Information Modelling (BIM). Sarawak, located on Borneo Island, practices a distinct land administration system compared to Peninsular Malaysia. While Peninsular Malaysia follows the National Land Code of 1965, Sarawak adheres to the Sarawak Land Code 1958, which includes provisions for indigenous customary land rights. The Malaysia country profile has been developed based on the LADM standard, considering the 3D situation. Since both regions (Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak) are under different legal frameworks, this study attempts to further develop the Sarawak country profile based on its current land administration system, including adopting some classes and attributes from the existing Malaysia country profile. The study investigates the potential of incorporating legal space details from the BIM/Industry Foundation Class (IFC) model into the Sarawak country profile. The conceptual model details the fundamental LADM components (Party, Administrative, and Spatial Unit), along with details on the legal space sourced from BIM/IFC. This mapping process requires BIM/IFC data to contain sufficient information for distinguishing property spaces and their boundaries.

Evaluating the performance of a land administration system (LAS) is a critical task as it can provide input for improving the operational system. Through such an evaluation, the strengths and weaknesses of the existing system can be identified, and actions can be taken to improve it. Efforts have been made to develop frameworks and best practices for the assessment and comparison of the performance of LASs. Amongst the most prominent are the ‘Land Governance Assessment Framework’ (LGAF) of the World Bank and the ‘Global Land Indicators’ proposed by the Global Land Tool Network (GLTN) and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) in its Global Land Indicators Initiative (GLII). The GLII indicators are closely related to the UN-Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicators on land tenure security, namely SDGs 1.4.2 (%adults with secure tenure rights), 5.a.1 (%agricultural population with secure rights over agricultural land), and 5.a.2 (women's equal rights to land ownership).

The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), an International Standard (ISO, 2012), can be used to monitor global indicators proposed by various international organizations and to evaluate the performance of LADM-based LASs, as LADM Edition II now provides full support for all land administration (LA) functions including marine georegulation, valuation information and spatial plan information. Interface classes to the LADM are designed to support the generation and management of products and services, such as the monitoring of global performance indicators for LASs.

This paper is a follow-up on Chen et al. (2024), which was focusing on formalizing SDG land related indicator using LADM. The objective of this study is to explore the extent to which LADM can be used to also monitor the indicators of LGAF and GLII. To this end, the indicators are categorized according to their degree of association with LADM (i.e. full computational association, partial computational association, indirect association, association with other standards and non-association), and interface classes are created based on the results. The results show that LADM can be used to monitor a significant portion of the indicators of LGAF and GLII, although most of the indicators are related to a country's national legislation, its implementation and organizational decisions and capability.

The Netherlands aims to achieve climate resilience and water robustness by 2050, necessitating an interdisciplinary approach to spatial planning due to the complex nature of climate adaptation. A critical need exists for subsurface data, especially for interventions related to underground elements like water storage, soil infiltration, and subsurface management. This need became particularly relevant when the Dutch government adopted 'water and soil guiding' as a core principle for spatial planning in 2022 (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat, 2022). Translating this principle into practical solutions is complex, requiring detailed knowledge of subsurface characteristics. The absence of such information can lead to issues like groundwater contamination and high-maintenance parks.

Despite the necessity for interdisciplinary and subsurface data, organizational, technological, and institutional barriers hinder the use of information models and standards in climate adaptation design. Currently, even though there are many subsurface models and standards available, the Netherlands lacks an integrated approach linking subsurface information models with local climate adaptation design. It also lacks an example of the use of standards to exchange planning information containing climate adaptation design interventions.

This research explores how subsurface data models can enhance urban climate adaptation design. By assessing existing models, it identifies data requirements for effective interventions based on Dutch policy documents. The paper introduces CLIMACAT, an online tool integrating subsurface information models and other crucial data in one online catalogue following FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable) data principles, tested in four Utrecht neighborhoods.

The findings emphasize the importance of integrating subsurface information models into urban planning to achieve more effective and context-sensitive climate adaptation interventions. Significant barriers include data accessibility and standardization. New spatial plans were standardized using Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) Part 5 (ISO 19152-5), tailoring some attributes for climate adaptation design, facilitating cross-border information exchange. This approach addresses specific challenges in the Netherlands and provides a framework for international adoption, contributing to global urban climate adaptation efforts. The research highlights the need for accessible subsurface data and interdisciplinary collaboration, supported by continuous technological and policy advancements.