Map labels play an important role in helping users interpret geographic information. Traditional label placement algorithms are typically designed for static or fixed-scale maps, where labels appear at discrete, predefined zoom levels. However, vario-scale maps change content continuously during zooming, requiring labels to also transition smoothly to maintain readability and visual coherence.
This research explores how to place and adjust labels on vario-scale maps, ensuring legibility and usability throughout scale transitions. Due to limited existing work in this area, a set of requirements, both hard and soft, are defined to guide the methodology and evaluate results.
Different strategies are applied based on geometry types. For elongated features such as roads and rivers, label anchor points and orientations are derived from the medial axis (skeleton). For compact geometries such as buildings, the centroid and pole of inaccessibility are used to determine anchor points, while the minimum rotated bounding rectangle guides label rotation.
Two polygonization methods are developed using the tGAP structure: slice-based method extracts geometry at fixed scales and computes label positions per feature type; event-based method reacts to changes in geometry, computing label anchors whenever a change occurs. Label anchor points could be represented as continuous trajectories, supporting smooth interpolation. During interactive visualization, label positions, orientations, and opacities are interpolated across scales. To prevent clutter, real-time collision detection is implemented.
The methodology was applied to the TOP10NL dataset in the Delft region. Results showed that the event-based method allows more precise responsiveness to geometry changes but can produce occasional abrupt label movements. In contrast, the slice-based method offers more stable transitions but may cause unnecessary label shifts even when geometries do not change. Event-based labeling also resulted in a higher number of anchor points. While hard requirements were generally satisfied, some soft requirements were not fully met due to intentional trade-offs or implementation limitations.
Overall, this research introduces a novel framework for integrating dynamic labeling into vario-scale maps using the tGAP structure and demonstrates its feasibility through an interactive, real-time prototype with smooth label transitions and collision handling.

This thesis proposes a structured and scalable workflow for semantically enriched Smart Point Cloud (SPC) grounded in Heritage Building Information Model (HBIM) ontology. Rather than representing the heritage object with vector-based parametric models, this approach treats the smart point cloud itself as a valid HBIM geometry representation, preserving geometric fidelity while attaching multi-layered semantic information at the patch level. A structured semantic model is defined through a literature-based ontology review, encompassing structural, material, historical, cultural, and conservation-related characteristics. The SPC workflow is implemented and tested on two heritage case studies: the Herdenkingsmonument Kartuizerklooster and the Aula of TU Delft. Each case demonstrates the generality of the method under different geometric and semantic complexities. The semantic annotations are stored externally in structured JSON files, ensuring modularity, version control, and future interoperability. A lightweight web-based viewer was developed using Three.js to support interactive visualization and interpretation, enabling users to explore structure, material, and cultural information directly in the browser. Although full integration with 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) could not be achieved due to current toolchain limitations, the thesis outlines strategies for propagating patch-level semantics to 3DGS centers, as well as segmenting and visualizing per patch with Gaussian Splatting, establishing groundwork for future research in full semantically integrated rendering. Overall, this study contributes a reproducible methodology for documenting, interpreting, and disseminating heritage datasets in a way that aligns with HBIM objectives while minimizing modeling overhead. The data processing and the visualization platform are shared on Github by https://github.com/Zhuoyuee/thesis and https://github.com/Zhuoyuee/spc viewer/tree/main.

The growing global consumption of non-renewable resources is a significant societal concern. The shortage of primary raw materials and the decreasing availability of space for final waste disposal present an alarming situation. Improperly assigning materials to their recycling potential often results in high-potential materials being downgraded to lower potential uses. Transitioning to a Circular Economy, as proposed by the European Union (EU), offers an effective solution to this problem. A Circular Economy is an economic system designed from societal production and consumption patterns that maximizes the services derived from the linear flow of materials and energy between nature and society. It achieves this by utilizing cyclical material flows, renewable energy sources, and cascading energy flows. To ensure materials remain available and fully utilized over time, they must be documented and registered while in use. The EU has proposed a Materials Passports for buildings which is an electronic set of data and evaluates the recycling potential and environmental impact of materials embedded in buildings.
Land administration is the process of efficient management of land and its associated information, facilitating communication among various stakeholders both within one country and internationally. In this research, land administration is utilized because ownership information from the land administration can be applied to the registration of building materials. It also provides data on location and distance details. The registration methods used in land administration are well-suited to the concept of a materials passports. Hence, this research combines the concepts of Circular Economy and Land Administration. The Land Administration Domain Model, LADM ISO19152–6 edition II contains six parts- Conceptual Model, Land Registration, Marine Georegulation, Valuation Information, Spatial Plan Information and Implementation. Building Materials registration has a lot of links to the Land Administration, like owner, valuation. Introducing the ”Building Materials ISO 19152-7” standard can significantly contribute to the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM). It allows building materials registration to be aligned with (inter)national standards, ensuring consistency and improving the overall quality and reliability of land and property management.
The main contribution of this study lies in evaluating the application of Building Materials and establishing a standardized Materials Passports, including its basic requirements and conceptual information model. This research identifies and explores the connections between the Materials Passports and its integration with the core LADM creating a multipurpose harmonized information model.

This thesis explores methods to enhance the usability of vario-scale maps, focusing on user interaction, cognitive load, and overall satisfaction. Vario-scale maps, based on a continuous zooming approach introduced by Van Oosterom and Meijers, aim to reduce visual disruptions by allowing smooth generalisation of geographic data in real time. The research highlights their potential to merge precision and aesthetic clarity wxhile advancing beyond the conventional snapping behaviour inherent in multi-scale interfaces.
A mixed-method approach was adopted to investigate whether vario-scale maps could improve navigation and user satisfaction. Data were collected through a pilot web-based usability study, followed by a laboratory eye-tracking study designed to capture detailed behavioural and cognitive processes. Quantitative metrics, such as fixation counts and scanpath lengths, were analysed to determine efficiency in map-use tasks, while think-aloud protocols and questionnaires provided qualitative insights into participant preferences and frustrations.
Findings indicate that vario-scale and multi-scale maps offer similar levels of efficiency based on objective eye-tracking metrics. However, participants generally reported higher satisfaction with vario-scale maps, citing smoother transitions, less visual interruption, and a more intuitive zooming experience. The pilot study underscored the importance of user familiarity with Cartography, the careful placement of icons, and task complexity as influential factors in map usability. These insights informed the final study, which showed that vario-scale maps align more closely with user expectations for modern digital interfaces.
By emphasising controlled task design, participant comfort, and iterative refinement through pilot testing, this thesis demonstrates how vario-scale maps can be optimised for enhanced usability. The results further suggest that leveraging cartographic principles—such as appropriate symbol density-plays an essential role in maintaining clarity and facilitating user orientation. Through comprehensive analysis of both objective metrics and subjective evaluations, this thesis provides evidence that improving vario-scale usability is both feasible and beneficial. Future research with broader user demographics and extended usage contexts is recommended to validate and refine the proposed design strategies, ultimately supporting a wider adoption of vario-scale technology for interactive and dynamic mapping applications.

As urban architectural environments become increasingly complex and densely populated, the demand for precise registration of legal statuses, encompassing both private and public interests, has become more urgent. Traditional 2D cadastral registration systems are increasingly inadequate for addressing the multifaceted and vertical nature of modern urban landscapes. These systems are limited in scope and unable to fully capture the intricacies of multi-level property rights, overlapping parcels, and underground constructions. This study uses a BIM/IFC model for the building’s physical representation. The party and Rights, Restrictions, and Responsibilities (RRRs) data are stored in a DBMS, with all data and the building location being fictitious. Visualization is achieved in 3D over the web using Cesium JS, an extensible globe viewer. Unlike earlier 3D cadastral systems, this research has developed a new 3D Land Administration prototype based on ISO 19152-2 (Land Administration Domain Model (LADM)). The objective is to explore improved methods for analyzing and visualizing RRRs in complex buildings. Novel techniques include presenting UML instance-level LADM diagrams for selected parties and/or apartments, showing RRRs and BAUnits linking them. The study introduces a new method for displaying surrounding buildings at varying Level of Detail (LoD), with closer buildings rendered in higher detail and more distant buildings shown in less detail. This selective detailing enhances both performance and clarity in visualizations. A key feature of this digital twin system is its real-time update capability. This study supports the updating of party and rights information in the backend database, accurately reflecting these updates in the public front-end version. This ensures the maintenance and visualization of the most current property rights data. The system also integrates sunlight simulation, which is crucial for urban planning, architectural design, and aiding buyer decision-making. For more details, visit the project’s website 3D web-visualization platform.

The Delta Program states that the Netherlands must be climate-resilient and water-robust by 2050, posing a great challenge to spatial planning. This imminent challenge of climate adaptation requires a common ground of interdisciplinary approach as monodisciplinary reductionist approaches are often not enough to deal with complex phenomena such as climate change.
In this context, combining information models can support well-informed design decisions, since many interventions related to climate adaptation, such as those related to water storage, soil infiltration and underground spatial management, require a deeper knowledge of subsurface characteristics and configurations.
However, this interdisciplinary approach still face many organizational, technological and institutional barriers, related to inherent characteristics of design and geoinformatics in combination with practical challenges related to standardization and interface of existing products. There has not been yet an integrated approach that relates subsurface information models and local climate adaptation design interventions in a single place even if literature and design examples suggest information needs.
This thesis aims to explores how subsurface information models, in particular 3D ones, can aid the cause of concrete well-informed urban climate adaptation design interventions, identifying the reasons for an under use of existing subsurface data models and assessing existing subsurface information models, both in 2D and 3D, to better understand what are the information requirements for climate adaptation design interventions in the Netherlands.
As climate adaptation can often be a broad concept, this research opted to focus on concrete examples of standards for climate adaptation in urban design, coming from the Leidraad 2.0, the Maatlat, and the Klimaateffectatlas. The interventions used for the design analysis are also standardized and refer to a document published by the Dutch government containing the twenty five most relevant climate adaptation design interventions in the Netherlands.
The study of these interventions, standards, and models, along with the study of their interdependence, indicate information needs for local climate adaptation design.
Therefore, this thesis provides both theoretical and practical foundations for better integrating subsurface data models into standardized urban design practices for climate adaptation. As a result of this research, a tangible tool named CLIMACAT is developed. CLIMACAT integrates pre-existing subsurface information models in accordance with FAIR data principles: ensuring findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability. Subsequently, both the tool and the established information models undergo testing via design proposals across four neighborhoods within the city of Utrecht.

Land administration is the organized and systematic process of establishing and maintaining information about land. The efficient practice of land administration is anticipated to organize land registers for the provision of cross-sector and cross-border land administration services. Such a system should provide fundamental information regarding land administration without requiring access to land registers or geoportals. Due to disaggregated land administration systems in the Netherlands, land administration information related to the Dutch territory must be accessed through various geoportals. These geoportals include PDOK, Ruimtelijkeplan nen, Wozwaardeloket, Bagviewer, and Kaartenvannederland. These geoportals utilize different approaches to information delivery, processing and retrieval. The basic assumption for the functionality of land administration is the interoperability of data from different registers and geoportals containing land administration information. Therefore, there appears to be a need for an integrated land administration information system. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) as a conceptual model is a way to integrate land administration information into the organized environment of a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) for efficient data organization and accessibility. The second edition of LADM consists of five parts about the generic conceptual model, land registration, marine georegulation, valuation information and spatial plan information. This study examines the benefits and drawbacks of the implementation of the LADM Edition II for data dissemination in the Netherlands with a linked data portal.

An analysis has been conducted on the current state of LADM Edition II. Two use cases were identified and modelled to assess the implementation of LADM. Country profiles of the Netherlands were developed to adapt the model to country-specific needs. Linked data, a technique based on standardized web technologies, can enhance the capabilities of an SDI. To enable the implementation of the model with linked data, the country profiles were converted into an OWL ontology model, and datasets based on the Dutch registers were created in accordance with the ontology. Finally, a data story was developed using SPARQL queries to query and present the data for the use cases. A data story is a narrative that makes data comprehensible to a wider audience.

The assessment shows that the implementation of LADM Edition II for data dissemination in the Netherlands with a linked data portal has the potential to offer benefits in terms of time efficiency, resource efficiency and usability. This is the result of linking multiple registers from different domains of land administration, which enables the consultation of a single geoportal, the data story. However, this requires significant investment. The country profile has to be validated, datasets have to be created according to the ontology by matching the attributes in the Dutch registers with the attributes in LADM, and SPARQL queries have to be written to retrieve the data. These last two steps require a thorough understanding of the Dutch land administration systems and the ontology, and can be a time-consuming task. It remains to be seen whether the benefits of LADM in the Dutch context are worth the investment required for implementation.

Traditional planning processes are often manual, time-consuming, and prone to errors. While much of the recent research has focused on automating the permitting phase, this study addresses an earlier step: automating compliance checks between spatial plans and against local regulations in the early planning stages. To ensure that spatial plans align with general regulatory frameworks prior to the permitting stage, this research introduces a standardized approach by integrating Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) with the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) Part 5 Spatial Plan Information (ISO Draft International Standard: 19152-5). This integration enhances data management, facilitates seamless information exchange, and ensures adherence to international standards. By automating early-stage plan compliance checks—such as verifying building height limits or distances between structures—the research aims to streamline the process, ensuring that only compliant plans proceed to the permitting phase, where the design itself is assessed for approval.

To achieve this, the integration of IFC with LADM Part 5 is explored to standardize model-based checking between spatial plans during the early planning stage, using Estonia as a case study. As one of the most advanced digital societies, Estonia is continually improving its digital services, making it an ideal setting for this research. The primary goal is to enhance efficiency, interoperability, and standardization in these checks by incorporating LADM Part 5 into the framework, ensuring that various levels of spatial plans adhere to both higher-level regulations and local requirements before progressing to the permitting stage. This includes assessments and validation between different plan levels (e.g., Master Plan vs Detailed Plan) and within the same level (e.g., Detailed Plan vs Detailed Plan).

The methodology involves several key steps. First, a country profile for Estonia using LADM Part 5 is developed and tailored to the specific needs of the Estonian spatial planning system, detailing how the country acquires, stores, and manages its plan data. Subsequently, a new database is created based on this country profile, establishing a framework for data storage. Then, pilot Detailed Plan datasets, encoded in IFC format, are imported into the new LADM database using custom scripts, enabling checks to be executed through standardized data structures. Findings indicate that integrating LADM with Industry Foundation Classes improves data representation and interoperability while creating a consistent framework for plan assessments, thereby contributing to more efficient and reliable planning systems. Additionally, some simpler checks can be performed directly within the new database using straightforward queries.

This thesis explores the integration of the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator 1.4.2, which focuses on land tenure security and the availability of legal documentation. The primary objective is to design and implement a dynamic database system that simulates real-world land administration changes over time, incorporating the complexities of land rights transfers, party relationships, and spatial units. The research leverages PostgreSQL and PostGIS to create a flexible and scalable system capable of managing temporal data and generating SDG 1.4.2 reports.

Through the use of multiple constraints and custom functions, the system ensures data integrity while dynamically tracking changes in land tenure and ownership. Testing was conducted using simulated datasets across three years, which modeled evolving land rights, population changes, and administrative updates. The results were validated by comparing manual calculations with the system’s automated outputs, demonstrating the accuracy and reliability of the approach.

The findings highlight the potential of using LADM in SDG indicator calculations and demonstrate the system’s ability to handle complex, multi-dimensional land administration scenarios. However, limitations such as the use of artificial data and a focus solely on SDG 1.4.2 suggest that further work is needed to validate the model with real-world data and expand its application to other SDG indicators and land-related policies. This thesis contributes to the ongoing efforts to modernize land administration systems and provides a scalable solution for tracking land tenure security in line with global sustainability goals.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations for residential areas are becoming increasingly important as the urban population keeps growing and extreme weather conditions due to climate change are becoming more prevalent. Since CFD simulations simulate and visualise fluid flows, users can analyse and predict air flows in urban environments, giving insight in pollution, heat dissipation, and weather conditions. Performing these simulations demands expertise and time: 3D urban models must be prepared, and pre-run setups must be defined to obtain accurate results. Partial automation can streamline this process. Therefore, we developed a method that identifies geometric errors and defines mesh parameters for the open source CFD software OpenFOAM. This method follows the ISO19107 standard and recent CFD guidelines for urban areas, ensuring accurate simulation results. We validated algorithms with a variety of urban models and parameters, and analysed the workflow developed for the mesh parameters definition. Additionally, we created a prototype, in the form of a web application, in which these algorithms are implemented. Our prototype will simplify the use of CFD simulations for urban areas, making them more accessible to everyone.

As the way we interact with maps keeps changing, so do the maps change alongside. And it can be easily pointed out how these changes come alongside a large number of advantages for the average map user, such as quick access to data or the ability to view more or less of the Earth's surface with just a mouse scroll, as well as for specialists such as cartographers or spatial data analysts, as it is now easier then ever to manipulate complex data. That being said, the challenges have also shifted, from the expertise of the map maker to the software solutions which now do all the work.

One of the many challenges imposed by the aforementioned is represented by the way the map generalization process is achieved. This graduation project serves as a continuation to the countless amount of research which has already been performed in this field, with a focus on the niche world on Vario-Scale Maps, and in particular how borders are handled in this generalization process.

There is already a large number of different solutions available, some of them being considered as standard and used by some of the biggest players in the world of geo-information. However, it seems that no single one solution is a `silver bullet`, as they all have their advantages and disadvantages, as well as cases where one generalization workflow is clearly more suited then others.

Considering the actual status quo of the industry, this thesis will take a look at some of these already available solutions on the market, both individually as well as together, and will try to answer the following research question: \emph{To what extent can multiple line-generalization algorithms be (simultaneously) introduced in the Vario-Scale structure such that they preserve the topology and enable an optimal line density (while trying to preserve the characteristics of the initial shape as well).}

To reach an answer, it is necessary to start first from the lowest level, with understanding how line generalization function in different situations, then slowly building up the structure by introducing these new concepts in the broader workflow, to see what impact it has on it as a whole.

Many MLS point cloud application scenarios, such as navigation and localization algorithms, require only static environments, but the original MLS data usually inevitably includes many dynamic objects such as moving vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians. Therefore, these dynamic objects need to be removed before using MLS point clouds. This thesis designs an efficient and memory-friendly Octomap-based dynamic object detection and removal method for MLS data. Firstly, the original MLS data is split into multiple data frames based on the timestamp of each capture point. Each data frame is inserted into a separate Octomap along with its neighboring data frames. The free points in all Octomaps are extracted by setting an occupancy probability threshold. Second, the region of interest (ROI) related to the dynamic object is delineated by the MLS sensor mounting height and the local large vehicle height limit. Only the free points located within the ROI are retained. Then the free-point rate and the multi-return rate are calculated for each free point using a fixed radius spatial search to denoise and detect vegetation points. Finally, the KNN spatial search is used to remove vegetation points and extract dynamic objects from the free points. The proposed method is tested in four case sites in Delft, the Netherlands and its producer’s and user’s weighted average dynamic object detection and extraction accuracies are 88.004% and 82.624%, respectively. The weighted average overall accuracy is 99.833%. Compared with the original Octomap, the proposed method is 35.472% more efficient on average and can be further accelerated by parallel computing, with a maximum memory consumption of only 42.437% of the original Octomap. The implementation results and accuracy assessment demonstrate that the proposed method can be effectively applied to dynamic object detection and extraction tasks in MLS data sets in a compute-friendly and memory-friendly way.

Urbanisation and a lack of available construction land has led to the increased development of underground space which can contribute to the development of the urban areas by providing space for the construction of (infra)structural objects and networks necessary for a city to function and provide services to its citizens. The main challenge in developing the underground space is registering the RRRs of the underground objects into Land Administration Systems (LASs). Registering the RRRs of these underground objects in 3D can facilitate a better understanding, as well as a more efficient registration and clear visualisation of the RRRs.
To register the objects below the surface in a 3D LAS, 3D physical data as well as 3D legal data need to be registered and integrated into one model. BIM/IFC models can be (re)used as input data to register the 3D physical data. To register the 3D legal data in an efficient way, the ISO 19152:2012 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) standard can be applied. The motivation for linking the BIM/IFC models with the LADM is that the geometry of the BIM/IFC models can be reused from design for the registration of the legal spaces in LASs or that BIM/IFC models can serve as a technical encoding for the exchange of data in LASs and thereby connect the workflows from the (AECOO) community. In this research the mapping of the basic classes of the LADM to IFC entities is presented to support the linkage of these two data models.
Research to investigate the implementation of the LADM in a 3D LAS, with the use of BIM/IFC models as input for 3D objects on the surface such as apartment buildings and infrastructure objects has been carried out. The result of this research was that the RRRs of objects on the surface can easily be determined by applying the legal information from the enriched BIM/IFC model. No research has been done in implementing the LADM in a 3D LAS, with the use of BIM/IFC models as input for 3D objects below the surface. This research will therefore complement the earlier related work, thereby supporting the modelling of legal information of all 3D objects, below as well as on the surface.
To solve the challenges that currently prevent the implementation of 3D objects below the surface in LASs and to harmonise the different (technical and semantic) requirements for LASs a standardised workflow was developed and is presented in this thesis. The standardised workflow shall provide more insight into the modelling of the legal spaces of 3D objects below the surface, stimulate the exchange of data across the AECOO community, and promote the use and development of 3D LASs.
Two case studies were conducted, where objects (pipes) from the sewage system and a tunnel were used. The tunnel was a BIM/IFC model, while the sewage pipes were converted to an BIM/IFC model. The models from both cases were stored according to the LADM standard in a 3D LAS, represented by a 3D database and a 3D geospatial visualisation platform. The main results are that the technical part of the proposed workflow supports the registration of 3D underground objects in 3D LAS and that for underground objects the legal spaces from the 2D parcels that are extruded to 3D volumetric parcels, are sufficient enough to describe the RRRs of the objects.

In the Dutch government attempting to become fully circular 2050, VMRG, a Dutch Metal Façade Association, has initiated several pilot projects. Two of the most prominent ones are Cirlinq, an asset management platform for documenting building facades, and FaSA (Façade Service Applicate), a collective of stakeholders aiming to use drones and image recognition technology predict the maintenance requirement of facades. There are also attempts to extend the producers' responsibility by developing new business models in collaboration with TU Delft, resulting in developing a Façade Leasing Business model. However, despite these several initiatives and the emergence of new technology to facilitate them, there was still a lack of clarity on how they can be integrated to collect, organize and use façade information to enable decision-making at its End of service.

The first steps of the research involved conducting a literature review on the current state of the art in Circularity, the façade industry, and digital technology in the lifecycle of a façade. A preliminary framework was generated that conceptually maps out the information generated in the lifecycle of a façade, a data structure to store this information, and a conceptual framework for a façade product passport. Based on this preliminary framework, several hypotheses were tested and validated or refuted using surveys and interviews, which helped develop a more detailed framework. This contains detailed process maps of stakeholder roles in the supply chain of the façade, the digital methods used, and information exchanged in the process.

Several criteria are identified by referring to additional literature that can influence the End of Service (EoS) scenario of a façade and are categorized and arranged into decision trees, which eventually can form a framework for a computational tool. These are then grouped into modules which, when processed together, results in a decision. The criteria were then co-related to the information currently exchanged by the stakeholders to determine what is most crucial to making a decision. During this process, it was found that most information required to make a decision is un-processable by computational methods; firstly, they are in unstructured data formats such as documents, and secondly, the necessary criteria to make a decision are subjective and still need human interpretation. Therefore, the decision-making framework can either be used to evaluate existing facades scheduled for demolition or determine the crucial information to be entered in the passport for facades that are not yet constructed.

The entire framework from information capture, organization, and end-of-life decision-making is then demonstrated with information received of the CiTG Façade in the TU Delft campus as part of the Façade Leasing project TU Delft. During this evaluation, it was found that several essential information about the façade not available, and hence the façade was evaluated by assuming industry-standard processes and references to external databases such as the Granta Edu Pack. Information that is available and information generated is noted, which indicates the most crucial information required for EoS Decision making. During the EoS assessment process, while the façade can be disassembled and reused, it can be done early to design a new building, as it had fixed non-modular dimensions. Many conditions have to be considered, mainly regarding sizing, geometry, positioning, and structural system of the façade while designing the building for the CiTG façade to be reused. It was also found that recycling and energy recovery of the façade is only possible if the separation between the aluminum profiles and the thermal barrier is achieved. Although specific modules such as the condition assessment and the performance assessment could not be thoroughly carried out, a table with results of the assessments is generated and therefore acts as a starting point of how this framework can eventually be used and adapted to assess different facades. This framework can be eventually be developed in an iterative manner which can expand it to cater to multiple façade typologies and eventually forming a basis for an EoS assessment tool. All the research questions are answered at the end, acting as a summary of findings. As this research is just a starting point for further in-depth research, conclusions are made regarding recommendations to the Dutch Metal Façade industry and the following possible research stages.

An urban plan contains a set of agreements from all stakeholders that may directly impact livelihood. However, many cities show a ‘plan and forget’ behavior by not monitoring and evaluating their urban plans. While local citizens are often excluded after the urban plan is enacted. Gibbs (2016) warned of the risk of this behavior by saying, “local communities are given the impression that the risk is being managed, when in fact it is not.” Therefore, as the affected party, local citizens should be included in the development of the plan and the monitoring, evaluating, and reporting of urban plan implementation. However, in reality, a collaboration between authorities and local citizens in monitoring land development is rare. In some cases, cities do not share urban plans with society. This situation motivates this research by developing a framework to make urban plans interoperable and accessible to the broader community by determining four particular objectives: (i) to identify what type and specification of spatial data are required to support participatory monitoring of the implementation of the urban plan; (ii) to design information interoperability of land-use plans for participatory urban plan monitoring; (iii) to construct spatial data governance that allows two-way information flows between stakeholders in participatory urban plan monitoring; and (iv) to develop a prototype for PUPM that enables two-way information flows and multidimensional spatial representation to support participatory urban plan monitoring. This study was built upon the four functions of land management: land tenure, land valuation, land-use planning, and land development. Information interoperability is essential for allowing interaction between these functions, particularly in PUPM. This study supports the revision of the ISO 19152 on the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) by developing Spatial Plan Information Package (SP Information Package) for accommodating information from land-use planning and land development planning. In recent years, cities have adopted the digital twin concept to represent physical urban objects by exploiting 3D spatial information for improving the spatial thinking of all stakeholders. A common interest of urban planners in using an updated 3D spatial information for Rights, Restrictions, and Responsibilities (RRRs) was depicted for further analysis. Therefore, this study proposes the digital triplets concept for representing the legal situation of the land in four-dimensional representation (3D geometry with temporal aspect managed as an attribute). This thesis presents the development of a prototype using 4D spatial representation for supporting PUPM. The prototype enables two-way information flows between urban planners and citizens to enable the co-production of urban information. This study also proposes user-centered and data governance aspects in a holistic approach to implementing the proposed standard and technology, particularly for sharing RRRs with all stakeholders through an Open Spatial Information Infrastructure. The result of this study is implemented with actual urban plan data in the two biggest Indonesian cities: Jakarta and Bandung City. A usability test was conducted to assess the implementation of participatory urban plan monitoring using RRRs. The result shows that our approach can accommodate RRRs from the spatial planning process, providing a complete overview of the legal situation of the land or urban space to all stakeholders to monitor the implementation of urban plans to support the Sustainable Development Goals: ‘plan and progress’.

In this thesis a new method to show the generalization process is proposed and assessed - parallel step assignment. It investigates the feasibility and applicability of this method with respect to three proposed generalization approaches and tries to evaluate the possibility of vario-scale map representation. First, the generalization sequence is created for each of these approaches. It is then processed with a greedy algorithm in order to decide which generalization operations can be shown at the same time. After that, two aspects are assessed: the generalization of the map quality and the assignment itself. The results show that the method is feasible for the vario-scale maps, however, the proposed generalization techniques need to be improved and none of them can be considered as suitable at its current state of development. Nevertheless, the main aspect of the interaction is significantly improved and the solution can be considered feasible. At last, based on various observations and conclusions from the project, some ideas for future work are proposed together with an evaluation of the chosen methodology with underlined drawbacks.

This research is aimed to answer the main research question: to what extent we can use LiDAR point clouds directly in the PostgreSQL by means of FDW, and thus a FDW supporting the Point Cloud Data Management System is implemented. Then, the range and performance of its functionality are evaluated. The results shows this FDW solution is feasible while the querying time is relevant to the number of returned points. The benefit and problem of this FDW are analyzed.

Visualizing the point clouds is an integral part of processing the data, which enables users to explore and interact with the point clouds more intuitively. However, most of the current point cloud renderers are developed in non-immersive environments. In the last few years, some new technologies, such as Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR) and Mixed Reality (MR), have emerged and introduced new ways of presenting the 3D content. Among them, AR is the most commonly used technology, since AR applications can be used on mobile devices without specific equipment like helmet and handles. There are already plenty of existed applications for mobile AR environment. These mobile AR applications play important roles in fields like architecture, industrial design, navigation, advertisement, medicine and gaming. However, the use of point clouds in mobile AR environment is still waiting to be explored. Like rendering point clouds on other platforms, the biggest issue of showing point clouds in the mobile AR environment is that point cloud datasets usually have a massive amount of data. Moreover, the mobile devices have relatively limited CPU and GPU resources, reaching ideal performance, and the visual quality requirement is quite challenging. Also, the current \ac{clod} methods are developed for desktop, VR, and web-based viewers. The cLoD method has to be improved and revised in order to fit the mobile AR environment. In this paper, an interactive visualization of point clouds using cLoD method in the mobile AR environment will be realized. The main idea of this method is to reduce the number of points to be rendered considerably. A cLoD model that has an ideal distribution over LoDs is used in the method, with which can remove unnecessary points without sudden changes in density as present in the commonly used discrete level-of-detail approaches. Camera position, orientation and distance from the camera to point cloud model are taken into consideration while filtering the points as well. In order to further improve the visual quality, an adaptive point size rendering strategy is applied. What is more, for user's convenience, in the \ac{gui} some setting options are provided to the rendering system to change the value of parameters required in the rendering. The performance of the rendering system is evaluated with multiple quantity indicators and examined by different types of datasets. The result shows that our method can significantly improve rendering performance and meanwhile achieve good visual quality. The finalized rendering system is suitable for most of the indoor applications and some of the outdoor applications. What's more, a comparison between our cLoD method and the traditional mesh-based approaches will be presented to show that our cLoD method has the potential to replace mesh models in some cases. The resource code and the installation package are available at: https://github.com/LiyaoZhang0702/AR_PointCloud}.

Over the last decades, laser scanners are becoming more and more established for the acquisition of geo-information. Depending on the sensor platform where the laser scanners are mounted, there are MLS, ALS and TLS techniques for both indoor and outdoor environments. The high-quality 3D point clouds produced from laser scanners is an important source of 3D spatial information and it is increasingly used in a wide field of applications from engineering to medical modeling, gaming and agriculture. Although laser scanners provide dense and accurate point clouds, a scene coverage and the creation of a complete 3D representation requires multiple scans of the same area. The procedure integrating multiple scans does not always result to a perfect match. Errors that exist in the datasets or errors in the transformation of datasets create difficulties during the matching procedure. Matching data-sets with the best alignment is a topic that has been researched in many fields and a variety of methods have been analyzed for registering point clouds. A co-registration can be compared to a mathematical model and hence it is important to present not only the functional model and the set of functional relationships between the variables but also the stochastic model that describes the variability among the values and gives insights about the level of satisfying predefined demands. As a result, it becomes necessary to establish an evaluation of the output of a procedure and each result to be accompanied by its quality description. The aim of this graduation thesis is about presenting the stochastic model of a co-registration with a quality description of the result of co-registration between point clouds. The approach will be applicable to results acquired from an image-based registration and the goal is to implement a method in order to quantify the quality of the co-registered result of two different point clouds. A probabilistic analysis of the results of an image-based method results to a quantification of the quality of the output. Response images acquired from an image-based co-registration are tested and the quality indicators of precision and reliability are determined. Moreover, the shift parameter is also defined, fact that enhances the applicability of this research to co-registrations referring to big areas where multiple local registrations have to be combined in a globally consistent manner and each local result contributes to the global registration according to its quality indicators. Particularly, response images that have clearly defined peak areas and pass the tested criteria, are considered more reliable and contribute to the global registration with a greater weight. On the contrary, blurry response images, fail to satisfy the tests, are considered less reliable results and contribute with a smaller weight. The analysis of the images performed by testing the distribution of pixel values in both directions of the images. The implemented approach provides information about the precision and reliability of the images that have normally distributed values. Furthermore, by fitting a Gaussian line to the discrete pixel values, a sub-pixel accuracy of the result is achieved as values are generated in between the discrete pixels. The developed method quantifies the quality of an image-based registration but further improvements and investigation of the recommendations can also attach additional value.

In this thesis, a proof of concept is developed that describes a complete data processing chain for registering new apartment rights in 3D. This chain starts by defining and adding legal space to Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) Building Information Model (BIM) models. Once the IFC BIMs are enriched with legal space, the 3D parcels are automatically extracted. The legal space is checked and validated, and stored in a Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) compliant database. Finally, the legal space is visualised on a desktop and browser-based client. Currently, there is no functional 3D Cadastral system functional in the Netherlands. A pilot study has been conducted to register 3D rights on the railway station in the city of Delft. This complex area contained many stacked objects such as a tunnel, offices, shops, etc. [Stoter et al., 2017]. However, the 3D drawings of the area were stored in a PDF document, which only serves as a visualisation tool in a separate document in the Public Registers. As a result, it is not possible to check for overlap with other 3D Cadastral objects. This research focuses on registering apartment rights for a 3D cadastre by using IFC BIM models as source data. Apartment rights are one of the most common rights found in apartment complexes. The IFC file format is chosen because it is the most widely used open data format for the exchange of BIM. In the Netherlands, submitting a IFC BIM file is mandatory for obtaining a construction permit for buildings with a value of 10 million euro or higher. IFC BIM files contain a lot of information, including 3D geometries of the indoor spaces, constructions and building infrastructure. However, there is no explicit information defining the individual apartments (property units). Therefore, the IFC is enriched with legal space in order to enable fully automatic extraction of the 3D spaces that belong to one apartment. This enrichment is based on analysing the current way of registering apartment rights using annotated 2D floorplans as part of a notarial deed [Kadaster, 2014, 2019c], analysing the Dutch legal system related to apartment rights, and based on this knowledge make a proposal for enriched IFC IFC files. To reach practical suggestions for the IFC enrichment, that can be used in the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry, stakeholders such as notaries, the Dutch cadastre, BIM experts and other parties are involved. Also, current guidelines and practices in the Netherlands on IFC usage have been taken carefully into consideration, such as specification documents of the National Government and the National BIM Platform. The conclusions of this research are that it is possible to enrich IFC BIM model with legal space in such a way that it fits current IFC BIM practices and legal system as much as possible. This is demonstrated with two use cases that describe the registration process of a (fictional) new apartment building, and sub splitting apartment rights of a (fictional) existing building. It is also concluded that there is still many future work to be done, such as improving the definition of legal space in IFC, further researching cadastral administration systems, and the changes to the current in the legal system that are required to facilitate 3D registration of property units.