This thesis explores the feasibility of constructing a flexible insulated glazing unit (IGU) using chemically strengthened thin-glass to enable higher cold bending curvatures. The research focuses on identifying optimal material combinations and structural configurations to accommodate significant deformation without compromising integrity. Both numerical modelling and physical testing were employed. In the absence of sufficient data, material properties were experimentally derived to enhance model accuracy. Strain gauges were used to validate simulations against real-world tests. Findings demonstrate that a thin-glass IGU can endure corner deformations of up to 16.3 cm, offering a performance enhancement of 4.2 times over traditional fully tempered glass units. These panels have a curvature constant of 0.112. A case study is performed to investigate how well the panels would perform in a real situation.

This study presents a computational and experimental framework for translating arbitrary doubly curved surfaces into 3D-printed, deployable structures based on programmable mechanical metamaterials. A rotating-polygon auxetic lattice is employed for its ability to expand or contract while preserving in-plane geometry. A dynamic-relaxation workflow implemented in Grasshopper/Kangaroo links flattened and target configurations through a global equal-length constraint, automatically resolving element dimensions and hinge rotations. This approach is validated on test shapes with three types of curvature: mono-, syn-, and anticlastic. Physical models of these test shapes were printed to demonstrate the feasibility of the method.
In addition, the potential for scaling the system to full-scale structures was explored through large-format additive manufacturing. Deployment techniques were investigated, and discussions with industry experts informed decisions on manufacturability and material selection. Full-scale printing trials were conducted to balance the flexibility required for compliant hinges with the rigidity needed in structural elements.
Finally, the developed method was applied to a case study: a temporary shelter for festivals and events. A deployable design was created, and optimisation strategies were explored for both the surface geometry and the applied lattice grid. Finite element analyses were performed to evaluate deformations during deployment as well as structural performance under operational loads. A 1:10 scale prototype was constructed to illustrate how the structure can be divided into printable segments and assembled to form the complete system.

This thesis investigates an innovative tensile-based prefabricated façade panel, with the aim of delivering a stiff, lightweight, thermally broken, and highly reconfigurable system within a thin profile. The proposed concept is evaluated through dynamic relaxation simulations, finite element analysis (FEA), and physical prototyping to reveal its structural behaviour and design characteristics.
Beyond assessing the initial concept, the study also explores and analyses alternative configurations, comparing them to conventional light gauge steel framing (LGSF) systems. Expert interviews were conducted to evaluate the façade’s feasibility, practical implications, and potential future applications based on industry insights.
The findings indicate that the tensile-based façade panel is unlikely to outperform or compete with established solutions in typical residential or office applications. Key limitations include insufficient stiffness, manufacturing and installation complexity, and higher maintenance requirements.
The research concludes by recommending further exploration into alternative applications that are complimentary to the panels structural characteristics, including integration with ETFE or other membrane-based panels, lightweight overcladding systems, closed cavity façades (CCF), and tent-like all-in-one modular structures.

Bio composites façade panels are an example of circular building products. Using circular products not only decreases embodied carbon, it also contributes not to exhaust natural resources (by recycling them). However if such a building product is a their end of life, they end up as waste (landfill) or are being incinerated, the embodied carbon is released again.
To find an better solution for their end of life, recycling of these bio composite façade panels is researched by recycling the material into filler for a new bio composite façade application that meet the requirements. The main research question focuses on:
“How can bio composite façade panels at their end of life be recycled into new bio composite façade panels while maintaining or increasing their high performance properties and freedom of design?”
In this research this was tested through experimental testing where different recycled fillers were compared to the virgin almond shell filler. The different fillers were tested on mechanical, durability and functional properties that are vital to façade applications.
The results of the experimental testing showed that the recycled filler samples have potential as façade applicants. The mechanical strength is lower compared to the virgin filler sample, but the durability properties are higher. In terms of workability, the higher the filler load the more workable the samples are. In the visual 3D panel testing it became clear that the recycled filler samples have a less smooth finished surface. As a façade panel it is important to withstand wind loads, weathering, impacts and be aesthetically pleasing.
Recycling bio composite façade panels can be realized. Some properties are lower compared to the original product, but with the right adjustments they can be used in a façade applicant. A more functional application such as a corner panel would be more suitable for this material given the visual appearance of the surface.
This research shows promising results, but more research needs to be done on the usage of recycled bio composites in façade panels.

This research explores the potential of mycelium-based composites (MBCs) as a sustainable and innovative building material, emphasizing the critical importance of adopting material-driven approaches to fully explore the unique properties of MBC.By focusing on the material itself, this study investigates the processes involved in its manufacturing, the interaction between fungal species and substrates, and the optimal environmental conditions for optimizing its mechanical and functional properties.

Through a multidisciplinary approach combining material science, engineering, and architectural design, this research presents an integrated process of experimentation and prototype development that results in the creation of complex-shaped partition wall blocks. These blocks are made entirely from MBCs, using mycelium as both the primary material and the bio-based binder, highlighting the potential of MBC to replace traditional materials in non-load bearing building applications. The study demonstrates that mycelium-based composites can be engineered into lightweight and biodegradable building components, offering significant advantages in terms of sustainability and circularity.

While challenges remain in terms of the mechanical strength and durability of MBCs compared to conventional building materials, this research highlights the potential for material-driven innovation. The results show several versatile applications such as wall panels, non-structural components, and partition elements. By increasing the knowledge of the properties and behaviour of mycelium-based composites, this study lays the foundation for the integration of bio-based materials into sustainable building practices and encourages further research into optimizing their life cycle and scalability. The resulting innovative partition wall block represents one of the many options possible with MBC, and is a significant step towards a circular, nature-inspired approach to building technology.

The performance of a building envelope is crucial for minimizing operational carbon emissions and maintaining indoor comfort. Contemporary building envelopes, such as highly engineered glazed façades, achieve high performance levels but also add a significant amount of embodied carbon. For example, a 1mm reduction in glass thickness could save 7.7 kgCO2eq/m2. There is therefore an incentive to reduce the thickness of the glass panels, but the minimum thickness possible is often not governed by strength or manufacturing limits but rather by the deflection (serviceability) limits. Despite objective criteria guiding serviceability limits, occupant acceptance of deformation remains unexplored, leading to conservative designs. This research introduces a novel method for measuring occupant’s perception of glass deformations, aiming to establish acceptance thresholds comparable to objective criteria. An experimental campaign was conducted to assess volunteers' levels of perception and acceptance of various glass deformations. The glass was deformed using an electro-pneumatic system at levels corresponding to below, above, and at the current serviceability limit. The results demonstrate the feasibility of measuring human responses to deformations in the glazing and provide essential data for setting serviceability limits. The experiments indicate that, based on occupant feedback, the current serviceability limit of L/50 may be relaxed, thereby presenting opportunities for material efficiency, such as the adoption of thinner glass in facades. The methodology effectively captures human responses, revealing heightened perception of glazing movement at night and a higher acceptance during the day. Changes in reflection were the primary reason for the perception of movement, with lower acceptability at night. Overall, participants felt safe regardless of their prior knowledge on glass properties, and providing this information to participants did not improve acceptance, which was already sufficiently high. The findings from this research fill an important knowledge gap in understanding occupant acceptance of glass deformations, crucial for comprehensive user satisfaction assessments and evidence-based reductions in glazing thickness.

The world is currently experiencing a major global warming problem, and the construction industry stands out as one of the major contributors to a high percentage of carbon emissions. This is primarily due to the usage and production of materials. When buildings are examined in detail, it becomes evident that floor systems constitute a significant portion of the construction within buildings. Essential structural components, such as concrete and steel, along with small-scale building materials used across diverse applications, are major contributors to high carbon emissions. These materials are primarily non-bio-based, emit unhealthy gases during production, and have limited sources.

In response to this problem, there is an urgent need to shift towards using alternative materials in the construction industry and explore materials and methods that are renewable, local, bio-based, biodegradable, and do not produce harmful substances during their production. Therefore, this research aims to map out the possibilities of bio-based materials that have the potential to be structural components but have not been extensively detailed in the literature. In the context of this thesis, flax fibers and bio-based polymers that can potentially replace petroleum-based products are chosen. Adopting a research-by-experiment approach, various bio-based materials for the core material will be tested to identify the most suitable core material for the sandwich floor system. Besides, for the face sheet, flax fibers with a PLA matrix have been chosen. In turn, the sandwich is produced by a PLA core and Flax/PLA composite.

The results highlight that the proposed materials are capable of resisting necessary loads for residential building construction. Additionally, the floor panel possesses high environmental positive properties and low carbon emissions during its production stages. It is expected that this material proposes a new system that can become mainstream in the construction industry as a sustainable option by replacing conventional methods. However, the material also has a higher cost compared to a residential concrete hollow core system. Additionally, the life cycle analysis of the product should be conducted to better understand the LCA of the material. In general, by contributing valuable knowledge in the realm of sustainable construction materials, this research aligns with global goals for eco-friendly practices and underscores the potential for carbon-neutral materials to bring transformative advancements in structural applications within the construction industry.

Building construction accounts for roughly 36% of global energy consumption and emits
about 39% of CO2 from energy use [9]. Consequently, there is a growing push to adopt
sustainable construction methods and utilize materials with low embodied energy [10]. As
buildings stand as major contributors to CO2 emissions, the focus is shifting towards timber
as a building material choice. Timber is renewable, stores carbon, and boasts low embodied
carbon from production [11]. However, while high-rise timber frames represent a significant
step in integrating timber at a larger scale, their connections often rely on steel, contributing
to increased embodied carbon.
This thesis explores the resurgence of interest in wood-to-wood connections as a response
to sustainability imperatives in modern construction. It examines the historical significance of
timber joinery, the current state of sustainable construction, and the potential of engineered
timber products in reducing carbon emissions. Furthermore, the thesis investigates modern
innovations in timber connections, focusing on the development of ductile and eco-friendly
alternatives to steel fasteners. Through theoretical frameworks, experimental studies, and
structural validations, this research aims to understand the impact of implementing timber
dry joints on the embodied carbon of high-rise timber building frames.
Results reveal that while timber dry joints offer potential in reducing embodied carbon,
their effectiveness varies. While they can reduce the need for steel fasteners, their impact
on lowering embodied carbon is limited. Conversely, the integration of continuous beams
and multiple-span floor systems proves to significantly reduce embodied carbon in timber
building frames.
Overall, the findings underscore the importance of holistic approaches in optimizing timber
building frames for sustainability, highlighting the potential of innovative design strategies in
achieving carbon reduction goals.

This thesis investigates the integration of reinforcement learning (RL) techniques to enhance inspection and maintenance planning for timber structures, considering the increasing impact of climate change on their structural integrity. Timber, a critical material in historical construction, is vulnerable to environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, and biological degradation. These vulnerabilities are exacerbated by climate change, leading to significant alterations in mechanical properties and thereby challenging the longevity and safety of these structures.
Given the dynamic nature of these challenges, traditional inspection methods, which rely heavily on manual processes and individual expertise, are insufficient. This research employs machine learning to develop a predictive maintenance model that adapts to the evolving conditions affecting timber. The model aims to improve the accuracy and efficiency of inspections and maintenance planning, facilitating timely interventions to preserve the structural integrity of timber constructions.
This study addresses several key questions: identifying the principal factors influencing timber degradation, understanding the impact of climate change on these factors, evaluating current maintenance strategies, and determining the most suitable RL techniques for this application. Additionally, the research explores methods to optimize the RL model for reliability and accuracy, methods for validating and evaluating the model's planning capabilities, and strategies to enhance the interpretability of RL outputs for practical use in the field.
By leveraging advanced RL methodologies, this thesis contributes to the field of timber engineering and proposes a scalable and adaptable solution to enhance sustainable construction practices in response to evolving climate patterns.

This thesis explores the potential of integrating waste-based fillers from the food waste industry into bio-composites for facade applications.
The limited use of waste materials in building products, combined with a rising demand in sustainable materials, leaves the opportunity for new fully bio-based building material from underutilised by-products.
The approach involves integrating organic waste as granular filler into polymeric composites.
The methodology consists of a literature review and three experimental phases: identifying and evaluating various food waste sources for the use as fillers, optimizing grain size and composition of the recipe, and assessing the best-performing filler combinations in facade panel designs regarding sustainability and structural merits.

Spent coffee and walnut shells were identified as promising fillers, while the shells of cacao beans, de-oiled coffee grounds and cherry pits did not perform well as fillers. The walnut shell composites, especially those with 55% filler of a blend of different grain sizes, resulted in the most promising balance between of mechanical properties and filler content.

The results indicate that walnut shell-based composites exhibit promising structural characteristics and a lower carbon impact compared to conventional facade materials. However, further research is required to explore their potential in other applications. This project illustrates the viability of using bio-composites with waste-based fillers in building products, presenting a sustainable alternative to traditional materials.

In the pursuit of sustainable development, the construction industry faces the dual challenges of material scarcity and the environmental impact of its material usage. This thesis explores the potential of hybrid structures, specifically employing reused wooden elements, to address these challenges and transition towards a zero-waste economy. The research investigates the application of computational design and digital fabrication techniques in order to maximize the reuse of wooden structural elements without the need for remanufacturing, thereby reducing waste and carbon footprint. Using the TU Delft modelling hall of the BK faculty, this study introduces a new approach that combines stock-constrained design with additive manufacturing. This approach utilizes 3D printing technology to create flexible, adaptable connections that accommodate the irregular dimensions of reclaimed wood, thus optimizing the use of available materials. The study evaluates the environmental impact through a life-cycle assessment. In the end it will compare the proposed method to the traditional construction practice and other methods that stimulate the reuse of wood. The findings indicate that the proposed hybrid design methodology effectively reduces waste over the successive generations. However, the data also reveals that the carbon footprint has not yet decreased. Further research is necessary to identify the next steps for reducing carbon emissions and achieving a sustainable, zero-waste methodology. This study contributes to the body of knowledge by bridging the gap between theoretical design and practical application, offering a scalable model that can eventually be implemented in real-world scenarios to promote a circular economy in the building sector.

This thesis delves into the potential of timber as a sustainable and efficient material for constructing emergency shelters, particularly in post-disaster scenarios where rapid and accessible housing solutions are critical. The research focuses on the development of "Lock n Load," a digital tool designed to streamline and optimize the design, construction, and delivery of timber frame shelters.
A primary challenge addressed in this thesis is the limited availability of skilled labor in post-disaster situations. "Lock n Load" tackles this challenge by automating complex design tasks, enabling individuals with minimal construction experience to participate in building their own shelters. The tool incorporates a user-friendly interface that simplifies the design process, making it accessible to a wider range of individuals.
Another key aspect of this research is the emphasis on utilizing readily available resources. By optimizing the use of timber and incorporating local sourcing, "Lock n Load" promotes sustainability and reduces reliance on external materials. This approach not only minimizes environmental impact but also allows for faster and more cost-effective shelter construction.
The research methodology includes a case study that investigates various design and optimization methods for timber structures. This case study provides insights into the structural performance and material efficiency of different timber frame designs, informing the development and refinement of "Lock n Load".
Lock n Load offers an innovative solution to address the urgent need for effective emergency shelters by bridging traditional timber construction with modern digital tools. "Lock n Load" empowers individuals to take an active role in their own shelter construction, promoting self-reliance and community participation in post-disaster recovery efforts. The tool's focus on sustainability, efficiency, and accessibility makes it a valuable resource in addressing the challenges of providing rapid and resilient housing solutions in times of crisis.

Shell structures can be either calculated with complex mathematics and differential geometry, or with the help of finite element method (FEM) software. Neither method gives the designer sufficient insight about the behaviour of the shell in the early design stage. The first method is for most designers too complex, it requires proficiency in at higher order mathematics and it can be only used for shells the geometry of which can be described by analytical equations. The second method is more accessible for most designers, and in combination with 3D modelling software is an attractive alternative to the cumbersome mathematics. However, the disadvantage of using FEM software is that the analytical relations between the different parameters important for obtaining insight into the structural behaviour of the shell is lost.

The ideal tool for designers would take the best of both methods: the analytical insight of the mathematics and the relatively easy access of FEM and 3D modelling software. The aim of the research done presented in this thesis is to do precisely that. By extending the well-known beam-analogy and its relations for an arch to shell structures a construct of relations is available for providing the designer with insight and means to influence the geometry of the shell and the resulting stress state.

The proposed hypotheses are based on classic analytical geometry and mechanics, especially analogies and methods developed in the past to elucidate the complex mathematics and mechanics for the purpose of insight. The theory of graphic statics, reciprocal diagrams, complementary and potential energy was used to develop the method of solving the thrust network. Analogies such as the moment-hill for out-of-plane loaded slabs and the static-geometric analogy for thin shells as well as the load path theorem and stress functions were used to develop the slab – shell analogy.

Two approximate hypotheses are proposed in this thesis, the first is used to solve 3D indeterminate thrust networks by using complementary energy. The second hypothesis extends the beam – arch analogy in two directions to the slab – shell analogy; this method produces results in range of solutions found in classical shell theory.

The result of the different examples has been checked with the help of well-known solutions of classical shell mechanics, FEM calculations or graphic statics. Examples with relatively basic analytical formulas have been used to elucidate the proposed method and for other examples simple purpose made tools based on the method have been used. Some simplifications have been made to avoid unnecessary complications in the derivation of the proposed method, such as only applying a uniformly distributed load. But most of the simplifications are not technically necessary; the conclusion and recommendations section include some suggestions have been added for extending the method.

The inception of numeric methods for analyzing structures in the 1960s was the end of the development of analytical mechanics for shell structures. This thesis aims to continue this development by tying the used theories and analogies together and bridge the gap with the numeric methods and to increase the understanding of the structural performance of shell structures.

In the wake of the climate crisis, the building industry faces a unique challenge - to strike a balance between global sustainability challenges and the high standards of human comfort. A building’s façade plays an important role in reducing operational carbon emissions in a building, while maintaining acceptable levels of indoor comfort. In doing so, contemporary façade solutions often lead to an increase in embodied carbon in a building. Further, strategies to reduce embodied carbon, such as use of recycled or reused glass fail to meet conventional standards. This thesis explores the potential of a material efficient approach in design of façade glazing by means of reduction in glass thickness.
Reduction of 1mm thickness of glass can save up to 3 kgCO2eq/m2 of façade area. However, reduction in glass thickness may lead to deformations in glazing well beyond serviceability limits. This may have a negative impact on glazing properties such as its mechanical performance, thermal performance, durability, optical performance, acoustic performance and overall occupant satisfaction. While effects of deformation on objective performance parameters can be calculated and mitigated, there has been no research on how acceptance of deformation in terms of occupant satisfaction can be measured. As a consequence, serviceability limits are mainly governed by objective criteria alone. Occupant acceptance towards deformation has always been assumed to be low and glass panes are designed to be more rigid than may be necessary. Without measurement of occupant acceptance thresholds of deformation it is not possible to perform a comprehensive assessment of limits on deformation, and the potential to reduce glass thickness in glazing.
A novel method has been designed in this thesis to determine occupant satisfaction towards level of deformation in glass; with the intention of arriving at acceptance thresholds comparable to those set by objective criteria. As the first step in research a state-of-the-art review on the subject of serviceability criteria and potential for material efficiency in glazing was conducted by means of a systematic literature review and a façade industry survey. Based on the findings from the review an experiment was designed and developed. The proposed method is designed to be conducted in an office environment or a laboratory with volunteers who are asked to indicate their level of satisfaction towards deformations in glass. The deformations in glass are created by varying air pressure inside the cavity of an insulated glazing unit (IGU) using an electro-pneumatic system designed for this experiment to replicate two common loading conditions related to serviceability – climate loading and wind loading. Preliminary tests were able to provide a sufficient proof of concept for the experimental setup.
Feasibility tests for the experimental setup were conducted wherein the mechanical behavior and optical behavior of glass under deformation was objectively measured. The deformation patterns in glass panes displayed geometrically nonlinear behavior in line with predictions of finite element analysis. It was also found that the static deformation (pillowing) does not have any perceivable impact on the view through the façade panel. However, deformation of glass is perceived through distortion of the reflected images, such as ceiling lights and reflecting objects. Further objective optical experiments must be conducted under dynamic loading conditions so as to compare these with results of subjective testing. Subjective testing of the experimental method with a few volunteers is required before conducting the final experiment.
A novel method was thus formulated for a human-centered appraisal of façade glazing deformation. A comprehensive understanding of impact of glazing deformation is necessary to explore the potential of material efficiency in façade glazing. The experimental setup was found to be versatile and scalable enough to conduct multi-objective experiments to assess the impact of deformations on mechanical behavior, thermal performance, acoustic performance and durability.

The building industry is responsible for a large amount of CO2 emissions. With an estimated 11.7 GT in 2020, the building industry emitted 36% of the worldwide CO2 emissions (Bertin et al., 2022). This results in the need to efficiently use the current material supply. A way to achieve this is by transitioning from a linear economy to a circular economy. Within the principles of the circular economy, materials are kept in use by creating closed loops. This results in the prevention of waste. Examples of strategies that comply with the circular economy are repairing, reusing and recycling of materials or components (Brütting et al., 2019).
Recycling of steel components has become common practice over the years. Reusing steel components is less common. Reusing structural steel components can reduce overall emissions. This is because it excludes the highly impactful manufacturing phase (Yeung et al., 2016). Structural steel is suitable for reuse because members are often connected by reversible connection principles. Additionally, the steel industry has a high level of standardization and prior to reuse the structural integrity can be easier guaranteed through testing or available certification in comparison to concrete (Fivet & Brütting, 2020). When talking about the efficient use of materials also the gridshell topology is interesting to mention. Because of the double-curvature a gridshell is able to span large areas with less structural mass (Schober, 2015). Both the use of gridshell topologies and the reuse of steel are combined in this research. The question this research tends to answer is formulated as follows:
“How can computational optimization contribute to the design of gridshell structures consisting out of a finite stock of reclaimed steel beam members with the goal to improve the eco-performance calculated in embodied greenhouse gas emissions?”
From the literature different forms of structural optimization methods were found that related to the gridshell structural topology. In the literature sizing-, shape-, and topology optimization are mentioned (Li, 2018). Sizing- and topology optimization are most relevant within the scope of this research. Within this research sizing optimization is limited to stock-constrained optimization. This form of optimization optimizes according to a finite stock. Topology optimization can be divided into rationality-based optimization and structural-based optimization. Within the research of Brütting (2020) optimization of structures out of a finite stock is conducted according to the scenarios of deconstructing and reusing steel and the new production of steel. From additional research another scenario was identified. This is a scenario where a third party or a party via a material database offers their stock. Within this research this scenario is called the stockpile scenario...

This research, structured in a six-phase iterative framework, decodes the rationale behind complex façade geometries & their dependence on conventional materials. Parallel with rising climate consciousness, the built environment is searching for mechanically competent, lower-impact material alternatives in the façade sector compatible with existing production infrastructure.
Literature finds potential within emergent natural fibre-reinforced polymers that fit the bill. As the pairing of Flax fibres and PLA constituents emerges as the best scientific fit, commercial façade products with natural fibre-reinforced polymers do not exist yet.

The review identified a significant research gap in fibrous biocomposites; despite existing research on the economic composite sheet-forming techniques, complex structures using developable surfaces on fibrous composite materials are yet to be reported. This study rethinks conventional cladding systems, connects the research gap to the built environment's quest, and questions biocomposites' viability as sheet materials for façade applications.
The methodology involved empirical inquiries at every level in developing a fibre-reinforced biocomposite with the geometric capabilities required of conventional façade material standards. The system design led to a 100% biobased laminate material – a Flax-PLA biocomposite – capable of adapting to developable surface geometries.

A systematic approach was developed using sheet-forming concepts to evaluate the ability of the biocomposite to be reshaped without compromising its structural integrity. Positioning the research with circular R-strategies, this study documents the pioneering attempt for continuous natural-fibre composites, demonstrating developability as an intrinsic material property never proved.
Key findings upon an extensive testing program reveal that the biocomposite retains its original strength and durability even after reshaping, demonstrating its potential for a circular loop. A lifecycle impact assessment and comparative analysis benchmarked the material with virgin aluminium sheet metal, showing promising carbon equivalent savings using the Flax-PLA panels. The biobased panels present significantly lower overall implications, even considering their current shorter service life, which can extend soon.

The findings demonstrate the feasibility of Flax-PLA composites as a circular and biobased alternative to conventional cladding materials. Forming and reshaping these panels into flat sheets without distortion allows for reusability and repurposing, retaining their embodied energy across multiple life stages. This paper proved developability with a scalable strategy as a catalyst for future research on biobased materials and to strengthen their presence in the built environment.

Although relevant information regarding the curtain walls structural damage state is available, hardly any data referring to the seismic loading effect on the overall façade performance is found in the literature. The present research attempts to assess the unitised curtain walls seismic performance by identifying the occurring damage mechanisms based on full-scale testing and finite element modelling.
The study initiates with a state-of-the-art discussing in detail the relevant research areas. Additionally, an introduction to the curtain wall numerical modelling field is provided. This literature review originates both from full-scale experimental testing and findings of academically developed finite element models. The case study of an experimental procedure is also described accompanied by the curtain wall response to the inter-storey drift implementation.
The modelling approach is introduced by presenting the mechanisms and the recreated curtain wall behaviour. Additionally, the process of identifying the properties of the curtain wall the boundary and loading conditions is displayed. The various modelling phases, the initial numerical development, its improvement through the calibration with the experimental results and the calibrated version, are also included.
The accomplishment of the first global curtain wall numerical model using DIANA FEA is a main research objective. The novelty consists in the exploration of the software possibilities and limitations which, although widely used for numerous applications, it hasn’t been utilised for façade numerical modelling. In general, the numerical representation of façade systems aims to provide a better insight of the curtain wall behaviour that will be eventually accurate to the extent that experimental tests won’t be needed for their validation.
Another interesting area is the correlation of the numerical behaviour to the experimental results measured on the curtain wall mock-ups while undergoing seismic loading. The model calibration intends for a realistic representation of the actual performance as recorded during the full-scale testing. Additionally, the contribution of structural silicone sealants in the system post-earthquake behaviour through the comparative performance of façade samples with dry gasket and systems with structural silicone is assessed. This evaluation aims to reinforce the knowledge regarding the strengths and weaknesses of wet and dry configurations and to indicate their appropriate application.
The research attempts to contribute to the seismic risk assessment of unitised curtain walls by identifying the governing failure mechanisms. This evaluation is performed with regards to the silicone sealant, simulating both dry and wet configurations. Thus, a sensitivity analysis varying over the structural silicone bite is developed with respect to the façade ultimate failure. The curtain wall overall response is addressed by evaluating several parameters (displacements, distortion, rotation and maximum stress per component). Moreover, the detection of the largest stress values occurring per element is used for the utilisation factors determination. This occurs by comparing the maximum stresses with the respective design values. The different outcomes provide the constructive context for further research of the façade response under seismic action. The study finalises with conclusions, considerations as well as suggestions for further research. Various challenges encountered are also introduced, aspiring to provide helpful information for future modellers.

The building sector is responsible for 38% of global energy and process-related greenhouse gas emissions. In recent decades, a rapid increase in energy consumption in buildings has been witnessed, making energy reduction a pressing issue. Thermal insulation systems, that can operate dynamically in response to changing transient conditions, by alternating between thermally conductive and insulated states, are gaining attention in their architectural applications, since they constitute an effective mean for reducing energy consumption while simultaneously improving occupants comfort levels. Despite the pioneering work that has been conducted by researchers to develop adaptive insulation technologies in different engineering fields, currently none of the adaptive insulation technologies are embedded in real-world buildings for a number of reasons. The aim of this thesis, therefore is to identify these reasons and on this basis, to explore, the different ways in which an adaptive insulation system can be created. There are no established standards or requirements for the development of adaptive thermal insulation technologies. Consequently, this research initially focuses on the creation of design criteria that address aspects related to thermal performance, design feasibility, and technological complexity of the examined systems. Subsequently, the exploration of different design concepts was initiated by first creating a scheme of aspects, concerning the geometry of the core, the mobility of the outer layer, the number of cavity compartments, the type of actuation and the types of mechanisms that facilitate the transition between thermal insulation states. From the combination of these aspects, six design alternatives emerged, the principle of operation of which is based on the idea of a structure that can inflate and deflate during the transition of the system from the insulated to the conductive state. The core geometry of the concepts was modeled within TRISCO steady-state 3D software tool, where various parameters were tested in order to obtain the final topology. The aim was to achieve a thermal resistance comparable to that of state-of-the-art insulating materials in their insulated state and furthermore, to achieve a large range of shift in order to acquire a significantly low thermal resistance in the conductive state comparable to the case of an uninsulated concrete block. Simultaneously, the thermal transmittance (U-value) for the insulated and conductive states of each concept was estimated through numerical simulations in TRISCO and validated using analytical models for comparison. The results of the analysis indicated that, the thickness of the air cavity and the emissivity of the membrane material greatly affect the examined thermal resistance. Additionally, the range of shift depends significantly on the degree of evacuation of the air cavity. It has been found that technologies whose structure and working principle allow full compression of the core in the conductive state, can lead to a lower thermal resistance which is governed by solid conduction. The results of the simulations showed that one of the examined concepts satisfied the initial goal, achieving thermal transmission which ranged from 0.13 W/𝑚2K to 2.79 W/𝑚2K in the insulated and conductive states respectively. Whereas, the thermal resistance ranged from 7.5 𝑚2/KW to 0.4 𝑚2/KW in the insulated
and conductive states respectively. The obtained values of thermal transmittance from TRISCO, were compared with the thermal transmittance from analytical formulas. In this way, the accuracy of the numerical simulations was validated. The final stage of the design exploration phase led to the selection of the final design through a multi-
criteria analysis that is aligned with the aforementioned initial design criteria. The final design is a 1.5 m by 0.75 m opaque panel of low emissivity honeycomb core made up of 10 mm cells. In the insulated state the panel has a thickness of 0.18 m while after being compressed the thickness is reduced to 1/3. Actuation of the system is achieved using a dual-function pump that supplies air to a system of channels that access the core. An approximation of the sizes of the pump and pipes were given for the design of the air-supply system. In this way, the system can be reversibly switched between an inflated state governed by gaseous conduction and a deflated state, where the solid conduction of adjacent surfaces governs. The architectural application of the adaptive insulation system, considers the element as an infill component in which the outer skin is integrated into the system, implying that the transition between thermal states is visible from the façade. To conclude, this research explores the potentials of using the parameters influencing heat transfer capability for the development of an adaptive insulation system intended to be used in the building envelope. The research through design resulted in a promising design based on the resulting thermal performance indicators. However, to realize the proposed technology, tests on physical model need to be conducted. The thermal performance of the system should be validated experimentally in order to derive statistical data for its safe application and the actual dimensions of the air-supply system need to be determined.

With 40% of global greenhouse gas emissions originating from the built environment, the construction sector has a big responsibility to reduce global warming. The impact that structural designs have, is often calculated by simply multiplying a carbon factor with the mass of the structure. As gridshell structures feature a high number of nodes, they require extensive processing. This research aims to develop a better method of assessing the global warming potential of a gridshell structure, taking processing into account, and simultaneously learning what its influence is on GWP optimization.
The research was carried out by investigating multiple gridshell node types. For each node type, the required fabrication processes were identified. Carbon data was gathered for all these processes, as well as for the materials making up the structure of the gridshell. The GWP of a gridshell structure was then calculated in Excel per node type, based on design variables. A parametric structural analysis script was made in Grasshopper using the plugin Karamba. This script provides the Excel sheet with the variables, allowing it to calculate, and optimize the GWP value. An existing gridshell made by Octatube was used as a case study throughout this research.
The research concludes that processing has a very limited impact on the GWP of a gridshell structure, with most of the GHG emissions being related to the materials. The choice for node type that is utilized, does influence the GWP significantly. The research has produced a ‘tool’ for assessing and/or optimizing the GWP of a gridshell structure. The tool consists of the Excel sheet and Grasshopper script, and has the potential to be very useful in early design stages to not only assess, but to help optimize the GWP of a gridshell structure.