A chain of quantum dots (QDs) in semiconductor–superconductor hybrid systems can form an artificial Kitaev chain hosting Majorana bound states (MBSs). These zero-energy states are expected to be localized on the edges of the chain, at the outermost QDs. The remaining QDs, comprising the bulk, are predicted to host an excitation gap that protects the MBSs at the edges from local on-site perturbations. Here we demonstrate this connection between the bulk and edges in a minimal system, by engineering a three-site Kitaev chain in a two-dimensional electron gas. Through direct tunnelling spectroscopy on each site, we show that the appearance of stable zero-bias conductance peaks at the outer QDs is correlated with the presence of an excitation gap in the middle QD. Furthermore, we show that this gap can be controlled by applying a superconducting phase difference between the two hybrid segments and that the MBSs are robust only when the excitation gap is present. We find a close agreement between experiments and the original Kitaev model, thus confirming key predictions for MBSs in a three-site chain.

Majorana zero modes are non-Abelian quasiparticles predicted to emerge at the edges of topological superconductors. A one-dimensional topological superconductor can be realized with the Kitaev model—a chain of spinless fermions coupled via p-wave superconductivity and electron hopping—which becomes topological in the long-chain limit. Here we realize a three-site Kitaev chain using semiconducting quantum dots coupled by superconducting segments in a hybrid InSb/Al nanowire. We investigate the robustness of Majorana zero modes under varying coupling strengths and electrochemical potentials, comparing two- and three-site chains realized within the same device. We observe that extending the chain to three sites enhances the stability of the zero-energy modes, especially against variations in the coupling strengths. This experiment lacks superconducting phase control, yet numerical conductance simulations with phase averaging align well with our observations. Our results demonstrate the scalability of quantum-dot-based Kitaev chains and its benefits for Majorana stability.

Correction to: Nature Communicationshttps://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms16025, published online 06 July 2017 The original version of this Article included the authors Kun Zuo and Vincent Mourik who wish to be removed from authorship. Consequently, the author affiliations for these authors have been removed from the ‘Authors and Affiliations’ section. The original version of the ‘Contributions’ statement, which read “H.Z. and Ö.G. fabricated the devices, performed the measurements and analysed the data. S.C.-B. performed the TEM analysis. M.P.N. and M.W. performed the numerical simulations. K.Z., V.M., F.K.d.V., J.v.V., M.W.A.d.M., J.D.S.B., D.J.v.W., M.Q.-P., M.C.C. and S.G. contributed to the experiments. D.C., S.P. and E.P.A.M.B. grew the InSb nanowires. S.K. prepared the lamellae for the TEM analysis. K.W. and T.T. synthesized the h-BN crystals. L.P.K. supervised the project. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript”, has been amended to read “H.Z. and Ö.G. fabricated the devices, performed the measurements and analysed the data. S.C.-B. performed the TEM analysis. M.P.N. and M.W. performed the numerical simulations. F.K.d.V., J.v.V., M.W.A.d.M., J.D.S.B., D.J.v.W., M.Q.-P., M.C.C. and S.G. contributed to the experiments. D.C., S.P. and E.P.A.M.B. grew the InSb nanowires. S.K. prepared the lamellae for the TEM analysis. K.W. and T.T. synthesized the h-BN crystals. L.P.K. supervised the project. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript”. This has been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the article.

Nature Communications is publishing an editorial expression of concern on the article “Ballistic superconductivity in semiconductor nanowires”, by H. Zhang et al. On 09 December 2021, the Editorial Staff was alerted by Vincent Mourik and two other researchers to potential problems in the manner in which raw data have been selected, processed and analysed. In response to these concerns, Nature Communications initiated an investigation by contacting the corresponding authors of the article and consulting with two independent experts. The investigation involved technical scrutiny of the additional analyses provided by the corresponding authors, including supplementary data from the repository https://zenodo.org/records/6851435. Based on the evidence presented, the Reviewers endorsed the publication of the correction note appended below. Readers are urged to take this information into consideration when interpreting the data presented in this article. Kun Zuo and Vincent Mourik also informed the editorial staff that they wished to be removed from authorship because in their opinion, the correction does not address the concerns with respect to the data and they do not endorse the validity of the claims and conclusions of the article. The author list in both the PDF and HTML has now been rectified. All authors,with the exception ofKenjiWatanabe and Takashi Taniguchi, disagreewith the publication of this Editorial Expression of Concern.

Quantum-dot-superconductor arrays have emerged as a new and promising material platform for realizing topological Kitaev chains. So far, experiments have implemented a two-site chain with limited protection. Here, we propose an experimentally feasible protocol for scaling up the chain in order to enhance the protection of the Majorana zero modes. To this end, we make use of the fact that the relative sign of normal and superconducting hoppings mediated by an Andreev bound state can be changed by electrostatic gates. In this way, our method only relies on the use of individual electrostatic gates on hybrid regions, quantum dots, and tunnel barriers, respectively, without the need for individual magnetic flux control, greatly simplifying the device design. Our work provides guidance for realizing a topologically protected Kitaev chain, which is the building block of error-resilient topological quantum computation.

Connecting double quantum dots via a semiconductor-superconductor hybrid segment offers a platform for creating a two-site Kitaev chain that hosts Majorana zero modes at a finely tuned sweet spot. However, the effective couplings mediated by Andreev bound states in the hybrid are generally weak in the tunneling regime. As a consequence, the excitation gap is limited in size, presenting a formidable challenge for using this platform to demonstrate non-Abelian statistics and realize topological quantum computing. Here we systematically study the effects of increasing the dot-hybrid coupling. In particular, the proximity effect transforms the dot orbitals into Yu-Shiba-Rusinov states, and as the coupling strength increases, the excitation gap is significantly enhanced and sensitivity to local perturbation is reduced. We also discuss how the strong-coupling regime shows in experimentally accessible quantities, such as conductance, and provide a protocol for tuning a double-dot system into a sweet spot with a large excitation gap.

Kitaev chains in quantum dot-superconductor arrays are a promising platform for the realization of topological superconductivity. As recently demonstrated, even a two-site chain can host Majorana zero modes known as “poor man’s Majorana”. Harnessing the potential of these states for quantum information processing, however, requires increasing their robustness to external perturbations. Here, we form a two-site Kitaev chain using Yu-Shiba-Rusinov states in proximitized quantum dots. By deterministically tuning the hybridization between the quantum dots and the superconductor, we observe poor man’s Majorana states with a gap larger than 70 μeV. The sensitivity to charge fluctuations is also greatly reduced compared to Kitaev chains made with non-proximitized dots. The systematic control and improved energy scales of poor man’s Majorana states realized with Yu-Shiba-Rusinov states will benefit the realization of longer Kitaev chains, parity qubits, and the demonstration of non-Abelian physics.

We demonstrate that the classical dynamics influence the localization behaviour of Majorana wavefunctions in Majorana billiards. By using a connection between Majorana wavefunctions and eigenfunctions of a normal state Hamiltonian, we show that Majorana wavefunctions in both p-wave and s-wave topological superconductors inherit the properties of the underlying normal state eigenfunctions. As an example, we demonstrate that Majorana wavefunctions in topological superconductors with chaotic shapes feature quantum scarring. Furthermore, we show a way to manipulate a localized Majorana wavefunction by altering the underlying classical dynamics using a local potential away from the localization region. Finally, in the presence of chiral symmetry breaking, we find that the Majorana wavefunction in convex-shaped Majorana billiards exhibits caustics formation, reminiscent of a normal state system with magnetic field.

We propose a practical implementation of a universal quantum computer that uses local fermionic modes (LFM) rather than qubits. The device consists of quantum dots tunnel-coupled by a hybrid superconducting island and a tunable capacitive coupling between the dots. We show that coherent control of Cooper pair splitting, elastic cotunneling, and Coulomb interactions implements the universal set of quantum gates defined by Bravyi and Kitaev [1]. Due to the similarity with charge qubits, we expect charge noise to be the main source of decoherence. For this reason, we also consider an alternative design where the quantum dots have tunable coupling to the superconductor. In this second device design, we show that there is a sweet spot for which the local fermionic modes are charge neutral, making the device insensitive to charge noise effects. Finally, we compare both designs and their experimental limitations and suggest future efforts to overcome them.

We propose to implement a Kitaev chain based on an array of alternating normal and superconductor hybrid quantum dots embedded in semiconductors. In particular, the orbitals in the dot and the Andreev bound states in the hybrid are now on an equal footing, and both emerge as low-energy degrees of freedom in the Kitaev chain, with the couplings being induced by direct tunneling. Due to the electron and hole components in the Andreev bound state, this coupling is simultaneously of the normal and Andreev types, with their ratio being tunable by varying one or several of the experimentally accessible physical parameters, e.g., strength and direction of the Zeeman field, as well as changing the proximity effect on the normal quantum dots. As such, it becomes feasible to realize a two-site Kitaev chain in a simple setup with only one normal quantum dot and one hybrid segment. Interestingly, when scaling up the system to a three-site Kitaev chain, next-nearest-neighbor couplings emerge as a result of high-order tunneling, lifting the Majorana zero energy at the sweet spot. This energy splitting is mitigated in a longer chain, approaching topological protection. Our proposal has two immediate advantages: obtaining a larger energy gap from direct tunneling, and creating a Kitaev chain using a reduced number of quantum dots and hybrid segments.

Connecting quantum dots through Andreev bound states in a semiconductor-superconductor hybrid provides a platform to create a Kitaev chain. Interestingly, in a double quantum dot, a pair of poor man’s Majorana zero modes can emerge when the system is fine-tuned to a sweet spot, where superconducting and normal couplings are equal in magnitude. Control of the Andreev bound states is crucial for achieving this, usually implemented by varying its chemical potential. In this work, we propose using Andreev bound states in a short Josephson junction to mediate both types of couplings, with the ratio tunable by the phase difference across the junction. Now a minimal Kitaev chain can be easily tuned into the strong coupling regime by varying the phase and junction asymmetry, even without changing the dot-hybrid coupling strength. Furthermore, we identify an optimal sweet spot at π phase, enhancing the excitation gap and robustness against phase fluctuations. Our proposal introduces a new device platform and a new tuning method for realizing quantum-dot-based Kitaev chains.

Artificial Kitaev chains can be used to engineer Majorana bound states (MBSs) in superconductor–semiconductor hybrids1,2,3,4. In this work, we realize a two-site Kitaev chain in a two-dimensional electron gas by coupling two quantum dots through a region proximitized by a superconductor. We demonstrate systematic control over inter-dot couplings through in-plane rotations of the magnetic field and via electrostatic gating of the proximitized region. This allows us to tune the system to sweet spots in parameter space, where robust correlated zero-bias conductance peaks are observed in tunnelling spectroscopy. To study the extent of hybridization between localized MBSs, we probe the evolution of the energy spectrum with magnetic field and estimate the Majorana polarization, an important metric for Majorana-based qubits5,6. The implementation of a Kitaev chain on a scalable and flexible two-dimensional platform provides a realistic path towards more advanced experiments that require manipulation and readout of multiple MBSs.

The rapid growth of quantum technologies requires an increasing number of physicists, computer scientists, and engineers who can work on these technologies. For educating these professionals, quantum mechanics should stop being perceived as incomprehensible. In this paper we contribute to this change by presenting a pedagogical model for explaining Grover's search algorithm, a prominent quantum algorithm. This model visualizes the three main steps of Grover's algorithm and, in addition to explaining the algorithm itself, introduces three key principles of quantum mechanics: superposition, interference, and state collapse at measurement. The pedagogical model, visualized by a video, is called the ant colony maze model. It represents the search problems as finding the exit of a maze, and visualizes Grover's search algorithm as a strategy by which a colony of ants finds that exit.

In a recent breakthrough experiment [Nature (London) 614, 445 (2023)10.1038/s41586-022-05585-1], signatures of Majorana zero modes have been observed in tunnel spectroscopy for a minimal Kitaev chain constructed from coupled quantum dots. However, as Ising anyons, Majoranas' most fundamental property of non-Abelian statistics is yet to be detected. Moreover, the minimal Kitaev chain is qualitatively different from topological superconductors in that it supports Majoranas only at a sweet spot. Therefore, it is not obvious whether non-Abelian characteristics such as braiding and fusion can be demonstrated in this platform with a reasonable level of robustness. In this work, we theoretically propose a protocol for detecting the Majorana fusion rules in an artificial Kitaev chain consisting of four quantum dots. In contrast with the previous proposals for semiconductor-superconductor hybrid nanowire platforms, here we do not rely on mesoscopic superconducting islands, which are difficult to implement in quantum dot chains. To show the robustness of the fusion protocol, we discuss the effects of three types of realistic imperfections on the fusion outcomes, e.g., diabatic errors, dephasing errors, and calibration errors. We also propose a fermion parity readout scheme using quantum capacitance. Our work will shed light on future experiments on detecting the non-Abelian properties of Majorana modes in a quantum dot chain.

A short superconducting segment can couple attached quantum dots via elastic cotunneling (ECT) and crossed Andreev reflection (CAR). Such coupled quantum dots can host Majorana bound states provided that the ratio between CAR and ECT can be controlled. Metallic superconductors have so far been shown to mediate such tunneling phenomena, albeit with limited tunability. Here, we show that Andreev bound states formed in semiconductor-superconductor heterostructures can mediate CAR and ECT over mesoscopic length scales. Andreev bound states possess both an electron and a hole component, giving rise to an intricate interference phenomenon that allows us to tune the ratio between CAR and ECT deterministically. We further show that the combination of intrinsic spin-orbit coupling in InSb nanowires and an applied magnetic field provides another efficient knob to tune the ratio between ECT and CAR and optimize the amount of coupling between neighboring quantum dots.

Majorana bound states constitute one of the simplest examples of emergent non-Abelian excitations in condensed matter physics. A toy model proposed by Kitaev shows that such states can arise at the ends of a spinless p-wave superconducting chain¹. Practical proposals for its realization^2,3 require coupling neighbouring quantum dots (QDs) in a chain through both electron tunnelling and crossed Andreev reflection⁴. Although both processes have been observed in semiconducting nanowires and carbon nanotubes^5–8, crossed-Andreev interaction was neither easily tunable nor strong enough to induce coherent hybridization of dot states. Here we demonstrate the simultaneous presence of all necessary ingredients for an artificial Kitaev chain: two spin-polarized QDs in an InSb nanowire strongly coupled by both elastic co-tunnelling (ECT) and crossed Andreev reflection (CAR). We fine-tune this system to a sweet spot where a pair of poor man’s Majorana states is predicted to appear. At this sweet spot, the transport characteristics satisfy the theoretical predictions for such a system, including pairwise correlation, zero charge and stability against local perturbations. Although the simple system presented here can be scaled to simulate a full Kitaev chain with an emergent topological order, it can also be used imminently to explore relevant physics related to non-Abelian anyons.

In most naturally occurring superconductors, electrons with opposite spins form Cooper pairs. This includes both conventional s-wave superconductors such as aluminium, as well as high-transition-temperature, d-wave superconductors. Materials with intrinsic p-wave superconductivity, hosting Cooper pairs made of equal-spin electrons, have not been conclusively identified, nor synthesized, despite promising progress^1–3. Instead, engineered platforms where s-wave superconductors are brought into contact with magnetic materials have shown convincing signatures of equal-spin pairing^4–6. Here we directly measure equal-spin pairing between spin-polarized quantum dots. This pairing is proximity-induced from an s-wave superconductor into a semiconducting nanowire with strong spin–orbit interaction. We demonstrate such pairing by showing that breaking a Cooper pair can result in two electrons with equal spin polarization. Our results demonstrate controllable detection of singlet and triplet pairing between the quantum dots. Achieving such triplet pairing in a sequence of quantum dots will be required for realizing an artificial Kitaev chain^7–9.

We study the electronic properties of a planar semiconductor-superconductor heterostructure, in which a thin ferromagnetic insulator layer lies in between and acts as a spin filtering barrier. We find that in such a system one can simultaneously enhance the strengths of all the three important induced physical quantities, i.e., Rashba spin-orbit coupling, exchange coupling, and superconducting pairing potential, for the hybrid mode by external gating. Our results show the specific advantage of this stacked device geometry compared to conventional devices. We further discuss how to optimize geometrical parameters for the heterostructure and complement our numerical simulations with analytic calculations.

This magazine is both an introduction into quantum computing and an exploration of its impact on our world. It follows on from our 2019 magazine on the quantum internet. Since 2019, much progress has been made in quantum technologies worldwide. In 2020, for instance, the first European quantum computer came online in Delft. Although this is meant for experiments only, it shows that quantum computing is becoming real. We aim to present you with a basic picture of quantum computing, and sketch applications for which it can be used. The contents are meant to be accessible, but some texts may be more suitable for readers with a basic understanding of quantum technology. Let that not be a reason to stop exploring: the magazine is meant to be browsed, so you can find the articles that help you learn about quantum computers. At TU Delft, we see it as our responsibility to investigate and inform you about the impact of the technologies we develop. Hence, we also explore the potential impact of quantum computing on the world: how the expected wave of applications may ripple through society. This exploration is partly guess-work. Quantum computing is a new technology and no doubt more applications will be discovered. Moreover, while as a university we are good at describing what quantum computing is, it will be future users who determine what meaning its applications will have. That is why we also asked the help of experts in and outside of academia when exploring the impact of quantum computing. This magazine is the result of the work by the Quantum Computing Vision Team. Vision teams are composed of TU Delft scientists and engineers from many disciplines, and with vision teams TU Delft participates in public discussions on technologies. We hope this magazine offers you insights of what quantum computing can bring, and invites you to become part of the discussion of how we can make quantum computing meaningful to you and to society.

Semiconductor quantum dots have proven to be a useful platform for quantum simulation in the solid state. However, implementing a superconducting coupling between quantum dots mediated by a Cooper pair has so far suffered from limited tunability and strong suppression. This has limited applications such as Cooper pair splitting and quantum dot simulation of topological Kitaev chains. In this Letter, we propose how to mediate tunable effective couplings via Andreev bound states in a semiconductor-superconductor nanowire connecting two quantum dots. We show that in this way it is possible to individually control both the coupling mediated by Cooper pairs and by single electrons by changing the properties of the Andreev bound states with easily accessible experimental parameters. In addition, the problem of coupling suppression is greatly mitigated. We also propose how to experimentally extract the coupling strengths from resonant current in a three-terminal junction. Our proposal will enable future experiments that have not been possible so far.