L.M. Ramirez Elizondo
info
Please Note
<p>This page displays the records of the person named above and is not linked to a unique person identifier. This record may need to be merged to a profile.</p>
97 records found
1
Journal article
(2026)
-
Darío Slaifstein, Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli, Laura Ramirez-Elizondo, Pavol Bauer
The operation of residential energy hubs with multiple energy carriers (electricity, heat, mobility) poses a significant challenge due to different carrier dynamics, hybrid storage coordination and high-dimensional action-spaces. Energy management systems oversee their operation, deciding the set points of the primary control layer. This paper presents a novel 2-stage economic model predictive controller for electrified buildings including physics-based models of the battery degradation and thermal systems. The hierarchical control operates in the Dutch sequential energy markets. In particular common assumptions regarding intra-day markets (auction and continuous-time) are discussed as well as the coupling of the different storage systems. The best control policy it is best to follow continuous time intra-day in the summer and the intra-day auction in the winter. This sequential operation comes at the expense of increased battery degradation. Lastly, under our controller, the realized short-term flexibility of the thermal energy storage is marginal compared to the flexibility delivered by stationary battery pack and electric vehicles with bidirectional charging.
...
The operation of residential energy hubs with multiple energy carriers (electricity, heat, mobility) poses a significant challenge due to different carrier dynamics, hybrid storage coordination and high-dimensional action-spaces. Energy management systems oversee their operation, deciding the set points of the primary control layer. This paper presents a novel 2-stage economic model predictive controller for electrified buildings including physics-based models of the battery degradation and thermal systems. The hierarchical control operates in the Dutch sequential energy markets. In particular common assumptions regarding intra-day markets (auction and continuous-time) are discussed as well as the coupling of the different storage systems. The best control policy it is best to follow continuous time intra-day in the summer and the intra-day auction in the winter. This sequential operation comes at the expense of increased battery degradation. Lastly, under our controller, the realized short-term flexibility of the thermal energy storage is marginal compared to the flexibility delivered by stationary battery pack and electric vehicles with bidirectional charging.
Conference paper
(2025)
-
J.J. Alpizar Castillo, Aihui Fu, L.M. Ramirez Elizondo, Milos Cvetkovic, Pavol Bauer
The energy transition encourages using heat pumps at the residential level, which results in a multi-carrier energy system when combined with PV and battery storage. Optimally controlling such systems has proven challenging. The numerous constraints required, different response times per energy carrier, and the need for forecasting methods also increase the complexity and computational cost. We propose an adaptable energy management system strategy for any system architecture with a reduced number of constraints using genetic algorithms with a discrete-continuous approach for the power setpoints. Using random forest regression, we also created short-term estimation models for the PV generation and electric and thermal demand, with error distributions centred near 0 %. Our results demonstrate that the strategy can solve the power allocation problem in the order of 1 s, including forecasting 60 minutes, minimizing electric costs, and ensuring thermal comfort.
...
The energy transition encourages using heat pumps at the residential level, which results in a multi-carrier energy system when combined with PV and battery storage. Optimally controlling such systems has proven challenging. The numerous constraints required, different response times per energy carrier, and the need for forecasting methods also increase the complexity and computational cost. We propose an adaptable energy management system strategy for any system architecture with a reduced number of constraints using genetic algorithms with a discrete-continuous approach for the power setpoints. Using random forest regression, we also created short-term estimation models for the PV generation and electric and thermal demand, with error distributions centred near 0 %. Our results demonstrate that the strategy can solve the power allocation problem in the order of 1 s, including forecasting 60 minutes, minimizing electric costs, and ensuring thermal comfort.
Journal article
(2025)
-
Joel Alpízar-Castillo, Laura Ramírez-Elizondo, Arjan van Voorden, Pavol Bauer
The inclusion of PV and heat pumps in residential low-voltage distribution systems is a fundamental component of the energy transition. Nevertheless, adoptions below 40% can already cause voltage conditions incompliant with the standard EN50160 during winter. Aggregated storage systems have been proposed as a solution; however, the literature generally assumes full observability and controllability of the assets, which is unrealistic in many cases. This paper evaluates the potential of aggregated single- and multi-carrier storage systems to maintain voltage stability in low voltage networks, considering separated controllers for the prosumer and the aggregator. We used a real 301-node residential distribution network in the Netherlands as case study. Our results demonstrate that aggregated multi-carrier energy storage can ensure the voltage conditions established in the standard EN50160 for energy transition adoptions up to 80%, while aggregated single-carrier storage can reach 60% and centralized storage only 40%. We concluded that aggregation of storage assets increases the utilization of the existing grid infrastructure, reducing reinforcement costs for the DSOs. However, the energy storage assets’ high investment costs lead to unattractive conditions for single- and multi-carrier storage, compared to a case with only PV and heat pumps. Considering the current market conditions, using storage for voltage support would require economic compensations. These findings provide DSOs valuable insight on alternative solutions to grid reinforcement and centralized storage to address the challenges of the energy transition.
...
The inclusion of PV and heat pumps in residential low-voltage distribution systems is a fundamental component of the energy transition. Nevertheless, adoptions below 40% can already cause voltage conditions incompliant with the standard EN50160 during winter. Aggregated storage systems have been proposed as a solution; however, the literature generally assumes full observability and controllability of the assets, which is unrealistic in many cases. This paper evaluates the potential of aggregated single- and multi-carrier storage systems to maintain voltage stability in low voltage networks, considering separated controllers for the prosumer and the aggregator. We used a real 301-node residential distribution network in the Netherlands as case study. Our results demonstrate that aggregated multi-carrier energy storage can ensure the voltage conditions established in the standard EN50160 for energy transition adoptions up to 80%, while aggregated single-carrier storage can reach 60% and centralized storage only 40%. We concluded that aggregation of storage assets increases the utilization of the existing grid infrastructure, reducing reinforcement costs for the DSOs. However, the energy storage assets’ high investment costs lead to unattractive conditions for single- and multi-carrier storage, compared to a case with only PV and heat pumps. Considering the current market conditions, using storage for voltage support would require economic compensations. These findings provide DSOs valuable insight on alternative solutions to grid reinforcement and centralized storage to address the challenges of the energy transition.
Thermal comfort accounts for significant residential energy consumption in high latitudes; however, quantitative information about insulation improvements is not widely available. First, we performed a study to quantify the effects of improving the insulation in walls, roofs, and windows of typical dwellings in the Netherlands (a studio, an apartment, and a stand-alone house). Our results indicate that improving from single- to double-glazing is the most significant change, reducing gas consumption up to 50%, whereas the difference between double- and triple-glazing is less than 7%. Improving the roof insulation, filling cavity walls with insulation, or adding external wall insulation did not show attractive business cases, as the payback time was too high. Second, we evaluated upgrading the dwelling energy label by improving the insulation or adding a PV system and a heat pump. The results showed that, for energy labels C or above, the insulation reached a saturation point where it is not attractive to improve it before its end-of-life proactively. Instead, investing in the energy system by adding a PV system and a heat pump has better payback times. Our results allow policymakers and project developers to focus on the most relevant changes to accelerate the energy transition.
...
Thermal comfort accounts for significant residential energy consumption in high latitudes; however, quantitative information about insulation improvements is not widely available. First, we performed a study to quantify the effects of improving the insulation in walls, roofs, and windows of typical dwellings in the Netherlands (a studio, an apartment, and a stand-alone house). Our results indicate that improving from single- to double-glazing is the most significant change, reducing gas consumption up to 50%, whereas the difference between double- and triple-glazing is less than 7%. Improving the roof insulation, filling cavity walls with insulation, or adding external wall insulation did not show attractive business cases, as the payback time was too high. Second, we evaluated upgrading the dwelling energy label by improving the insulation or adding a PV system and a heat pump. The results showed that, for energy labels C or above, the insulation reached a saturation point where it is not attractive to improve it before its end-of-life proactively. Instead, investing in the energy system by adding a PV system and a heat pump has better payback times. Our results allow policymakers and project developers to focus on the most relevant changes to accelerate the energy transition.
Journal article
(2025)
-
M. Kitso, Bagas Ihsan Priambodo, J.J. Alpizar Castillo, L.M. Ramirez Elizondo, P. Bauer
High shares of photovoltaic energy in low-voltage distribution systems lead to voltage limit violations. Deploying energy storage systems in the network can compensate for the mismatch between the generation and the consumption; nevertheless, the mismatch is unevenly distributed throughout the network, suggesting aggregated control strategies as a solution. This paper proposes two coordination control strategies of batteries to address network overvoltage conditions caused by high penetration of photovoltaic systems. The leader–follower coordination strategy determines a battery’s utilization factor by using the node closest to a voltage violation as a reference. The leaderless control uses a shared utilization factor to avoid excessive usage of a particular agent in the network. We tested both approaches in the 18-node CIGRE network for scenarios when not all agents were available and when they had different starting states-of-charge. Our results demonstrate that both strategies are capable of voltage control; however, the leader–follower control leads to uneven storage usage, ultimately leading to short-time failure to comply with the voltage limits under extreme conditions where neighbouring agents must compensate for the unavailable one. Conversely, the leaderless approach presents more balanced use of the agents thanks to the distributed utilization factor, resulting in a more robust control strategy.
...
High shares of photovoltaic energy in low-voltage distribution systems lead to voltage limit violations. Deploying energy storage systems in the network can compensate for the mismatch between the generation and the consumption; nevertheless, the mismatch is unevenly distributed throughout the network, suggesting aggregated control strategies as a solution. This paper proposes two coordination control strategies of batteries to address network overvoltage conditions caused by high penetration of photovoltaic systems. The leader–follower coordination strategy determines a battery’s utilization factor by using the node closest to a voltage violation as a reference. The leaderless control uses a shared utilization factor to avoid excessive usage of a particular agent in the network. We tested both approaches in the 18-node CIGRE network for scenarios when not all agents were available and when they had different starting states-of-charge. Our results demonstrate that both strategies are capable of voltage control; however, the leader–follower control leads to uneven storage usage, ultimately leading to short-time failure to comply with the voltage limits under extreme conditions where neighbouring agents must compensate for the unavailable one. Conversely, the leaderless approach presents more balanced use of the agents thanks to the distributed utilization factor, resulting in a more robust control strategy.
Journal article
(2025)
-
J.A.J. de Wind, J.J. Alpizar Castillo, Julian Visser, L.M. Ramirez Elizondo
The magnitude and effect of residential E-cooling demand on the Dutch energy market have not been studied in the literature. However, due to rising temperatures and the increase in the adoption of heat pumps, the effects of residential e-cooling demand are expected to rise sharply in the upcoming decades. First, a thermodynamic model of different Dutch residential buildings described the magnitude and patterns of residential E-cooling. Second, the effects of E-cooling on the distribution network were tested using the IEEE 906-bus European LV network. Third, a country-wide simulation of the effect of residential E-cooling on the energy market was done in Plexos from 2025 to 2050. The results showed a doubling of the cooling demand between 2025 and 2030 and a maximum annual cooling demand of approximately 0.4 TWh. In addition, it was shown how the demand for residential cooling could decrease local power quality when more than 40 % of households actively cool their houses simultaneously, increasing network costs. Finally, it was also proven how power prices could increase due to higher demand and how revenue for specific generation components could double or decrease by 2% during heat waves when accounting for residential E-cooling demand.
...
The magnitude and effect of residential E-cooling demand on the Dutch energy market have not been studied in the literature. However, due to rising temperatures and the increase in the adoption of heat pumps, the effects of residential e-cooling demand are expected to rise sharply in the upcoming decades. First, a thermodynamic model of different Dutch residential buildings described the magnitude and patterns of residential E-cooling. Second, the effects of E-cooling on the distribution network were tested using the IEEE 906-bus European LV network. Third, a country-wide simulation of the effect of residential E-cooling on the energy market was done in Plexos from 2025 to 2050. The results showed a doubling of the cooling demand between 2025 and 2030 and a maximum annual cooling demand of approximately 0.4 TWh. In addition, it was shown how the demand for residential cooling could decrease local power quality when more than 40 % of households actively cool their houses simultaneously, increasing network costs. Finally, it was also proven how power prices could increase due to higher demand and how revenue for specific generation components could double or decrease by 2% during heat waves when accounting for residential E-cooling demand.
The urgent need to address global warming and transition to sustainable energy solutions has driven the development of innovative heating systems. Among those solutions, several district heating alternatives have been proposed to combine heat pumps and thermal energy storage tanks. This paper addresses the integration of photovoltaic thermal systems (PVT) with aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) within a fifth-generation district heating network as an innovative combination to minimise electrical power consumption from the grid, thereby reducing grid dependency and CO2 emissions. The proposed configuration is tested for the Werfgebied district in Hilversum, the Netherlands A Python model of the multi-energy carrier system is developed to investigate the effects of configuration, storage distribution, and component sizing within the district heating network, embedding the thermal and electrical behaviour of the components and their interaction. The results show that an optimal configuration for the ATES and PVT combination involves a single ATES well rather than distributed thermal energy storage. The results indicate that the aquifer's size significantly affects the overall operating temperature and its fluctuations. A larger ATES maintains a stable but relatively colder temperature. If constrained by a maximum allowed ATES temperature of 20 °C, the optimal ATES size is 175 000 m3; however, when considering the overall benefit and excluding that constraint, the optimal system size comprises an ATES of 380 000 m3 and an 800 module PVT system, reducing the overall emissions by 856 tonnes of CO2 equivalent compared to the case without the district heating.
...
The urgent need to address global warming and transition to sustainable energy solutions has driven the development of innovative heating systems. Among those solutions, several district heating alternatives have been proposed to combine heat pumps and thermal energy storage tanks. This paper addresses the integration of photovoltaic thermal systems (PVT) with aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) within a fifth-generation district heating network as an innovative combination to minimise electrical power consumption from the grid, thereby reducing grid dependency and CO2 emissions. The proposed configuration is tested for the Werfgebied district in Hilversum, the Netherlands A Python model of the multi-energy carrier system is developed to investigate the effects of configuration, storage distribution, and component sizing within the district heating network, embedding the thermal and electrical behaviour of the components and their interaction. The results show that an optimal configuration for the ATES and PVT combination involves a single ATES well rather than distributed thermal energy storage. The results indicate that the aquifer's size significantly affects the overall operating temperature and its fluctuations. A larger ATES maintains a stable but relatively colder temperature. If constrained by a maximum allowed ATES temperature of 20 °C, the optimal ATES size is 175 000 m3; however, when considering the overall benefit and excluding that constraint, the optimal system size comprises an ATES of 380 000 m3 and an 800 module PVT system, reducing the overall emissions by 856 tonnes of CO2 equivalent compared to the case without the district heating.
Industry plays a significant role in the energy transition due to its share of energy consumption. More complex energy systems are proposed to accelerate the energy transition, including coupling renewable energy sources and energy storage to supply part of the industrial loads locally. In this work, we used a multi-objective genetic algorithm to optimally size an industrial hybrid power system comprising a PV system, a battery energy storage system, and a diesel generator to minimise energy costs and overall equivalent CO2 emissions. The results suggest that the system does not require high power and capacity components to minimise the energy cost and equivalent CO2 emissions, highlighting the importance of the EMS strategy. In our case scenario, the optimal HPS reduced the emission cost by 46.7 % and the energy cost by 8.7 %. For the EMS, we proposed a rolling horizon average approach, which defines a setpoint for the power exchanged with the grid to minimise its change rate in time. The EMS dispatched the power to minimise the sudden changes in the demand from the network, with a power allocation priority order of PV, BESS, and generator. We also evaluated the effect of adding the optimally sized hybrid power system into a CIGRE medium-voltage distribution network, using a real industrial load profile for each node. The hybrid power system improved the voltage sag on the hybrid power energy system node and its neighbouring nodes.
...
Industry plays a significant role in the energy transition due to its share of energy consumption. More complex energy systems are proposed to accelerate the energy transition, including coupling renewable energy sources and energy storage to supply part of the industrial loads locally. In this work, we used a multi-objective genetic algorithm to optimally size an industrial hybrid power system comprising a PV system, a battery energy storage system, and a diesel generator to minimise energy costs and overall equivalent CO2 emissions. The results suggest that the system does not require high power and capacity components to minimise the energy cost and equivalent CO2 emissions, highlighting the importance of the EMS strategy. In our case scenario, the optimal HPS reduced the emission cost by 46.7 % and the energy cost by 8.7 %. For the EMS, we proposed a rolling horizon average approach, which defines a setpoint for the power exchanged with the grid to minimise its change rate in time. The EMS dispatched the power to minimise the sudden changes in the demand from the network, with a power allocation priority order of PV, BESS, and generator. We also evaluated the effect of adding the optimally sized hybrid power system into a CIGRE medium-voltage distribution network, using a real industrial load profile for each node. The hybrid power system improved the voltage sag on the hybrid power energy system node and its neighbouring nodes.
The urge to reduce the dependence on natural gas for heating at the residential level has led to the deployment of different fossil fuel-free alternatives. In the Netherlands, two technologies are leading the transition: heat pumps, due to their high COP, and photovoltaic–thermal systems, due to their dual electric-thermal output. However, both represent a challenge for users and grid operators, aside from their stochastic behavior. Heat pumps alone can surpass a typical Dutch house's total energy and power consumption. Photovoltaic–thermal systems, as their only electric homologs, usually have a mismatch between generation and demand, causing energy injections to the grid. From the electric perspective, storage systems are a proven solution to reduce the energy exchange with the distribution network. This paper proposes four multi-carrier energy system configurations for a Dutch household, comprising different combinations of a photovoltaic–thermal system, a battery energy storage, a heat pump, and an underground water tank thermal energy system, providing analytical models for every component (including the thermal losses from the thermal storage to the ground), and the space heating and electrical demands. We determined the components’ compatibility and evaluated the combinations considering their thermal performance, electrical performance, and equivalent CO2 emissions. The results suggest that using a heat pump combined with a photovoltaic system and a battery provides the best trade-off. The photovoltaic–thermal system alone could not supply the thermal demand required for comfortable space heating nor reach temperatures high enough to charge the thermal storage. Combining the thermal storage with the heat pump allows a certain degree of flexibility for the heat pump activation at the cost of COPs between 0.8 and 1.38 when used to charge the thermal storage, thus increasing energy consumption and equivalent emissions considerably.
...
The urge to reduce the dependence on natural gas for heating at the residential level has led to the deployment of different fossil fuel-free alternatives. In the Netherlands, two technologies are leading the transition: heat pumps, due to their high COP, and photovoltaic–thermal systems, due to their dual electric-thermal output. However, both represent a challenge for users and grid operators, aside from their stochastic behavior. Heat pumps alone can surpass a typical Dutch house's total energy and power consumption. Photovoltaic–thermal systems, as their only electric homologs, usually have a mismatch between generation and demand, causing energy injections to the grid. From the electric perspective, storage systems are a proven solution to reduce the energy exchange with the distribution network. This paper proposes four multi-carrier energy system configurations for a Dutch household, comprising different combinations of a photovoltaic–thermal system, a battery energy storage, a heat pump, and an underground water tank thermal energy system, providing analytical models for every component (including the thermal losses from the thermal storage to the ground), and the space heating and electrical demands. We determined the components’ compatibility and evaluated the combinations considering their thermal performance, electrical performance, and equivalent CO2 emissions. The results suggest that using a heat pump combined with a photovoltaic system and a battery provides the best trade-off. The photovoltaic–thermal system alone could not supply the thermal demand required for comfortable space heating nor reach temperatures high enough to charge the thermal storage. Combining the thermal storage with the heat pump allows a certain degree of flexibility for the heat pump activation at the cost of COPs between 0.8 and 1.38 when used to charge the thermal storage, thus increasing energy consumption and equivalent emissions considerably.
The uncontrolled inclusion of renewable energy sources in the distribution network causes severe overvoltages. Simultaneously, electrification strategies, such as heat pumps and electric vehicles, increase the peak demand, causing undervoltages. The combination of both phenomena has proven challenging for distributed system operators who are accountable for power quality and accessibility. System operators address those voltage issues with network reinforcements, but such projects are costly and time-consuming. We identified that the cost and qualified workforce availability are the main challenges of premature grid reinforcement. This paper evaluated peak-shaving and power curtailment at the low voltage distribution level as market-based alternatives to provide flexibility using the business model canvas. We identified the main actors that would benefit from peak-shaving and power curtailment at the residential level, their relationships, and the value proposition's challenges. We proposed a business model where residential prosumers receive compensation for supporting the network to prevent the distribution system from surpassing the projected power flows. Both alternatives offer system operators more control over the power flow to ensure power quality while decreasing costs, as fewer or no premature grid reinforcements might be needed. The business opportunity resources are categorized as technical and regulatory, highlighting the latter as the main challenge for the business model. We discussed two residential prosumer case scenarios for the Dutch context, one with a PV system and one with a PV and a heat pump. Our analysis suggests that the business models are technically possible for peak-shaving and power curtailment with existing technologies for the selected target. However, the former requires more complex activities and is limited to a narrower segment, as it requires prosumers with PV, storage and high-load devices, such as heat pumps.
...
The uncontrolled inclusion of renewable energy sources in the distribution network causes severe overvoltages. Simultaneously, electrification strategies, such as heat pumps and electric vehicles, increase the peak demand, causing undervoltages. The combination of both phenomena has proven challenging for distributed system operators who are accountable for power quality and accessibility. System operators address those voltage issues with network reinforcements, but such projects are costly and time-consuming. We identified that the cost and qualified workforce availability are the main challenges of premature grid reinforcement. This paper evaluated peak-shaving and power curtailment at the low voltage distribution level as market-based alternatives to provide flexibility using the business model canvas. We identified the main actors that would benefit from peak-shaving and power curtailment at the residential level, their relationships, and the value proposition's challenges. We proposed a business model where residential prosumers receive compensation for supporting the network to prevent the distribution system from surpassing the projected power flows. Both alternatives offer system operators more control over the power flow to ensure power quality while decreasing costs, as fewer or no premature grid reinforcements might be needed. The business opportunity resources are categorized as technical and regulatory, highlighting the latter as the main challenge for the business model. We discussed two residential prosumer case scenarios for the Dutch context, one with a PV system and one with a PV and a heat pump. Our analysis suggests that the business models are technically possible for peak-shaving and power curtailment with existing technologies for the selected target. However, the former requires more complex activities and is limited to a narrower segment, as it requires prosumers with PV, storage and high-load devices, such as heat pumps.
Conference paper
(2024)
-
Joel Alpízar-Castillo, Koen Linders, Darío Slaifstein, Laura Ramírez-Elizondo, Pavol Bauer
In low-voltage distribution networks, the high penetration of renewable energy generators in residential buildings has proven challenging for system operators. In response, the grid operators can reinforce the grid infrastructure or deploy battery energy storage systems throughout the network to compensate for the voltage fluctuations. Alternatively, new energy markets for ancillary services have been proposed to involve the prosumers; however, most are at medium and high voltage levels. This paper investigates, from a cost perspective, what conditions can make it attractive for individual prosumers to participate in a low-voltage ancillary service market, specifically power curtailment and peak shaving. We considered a prosumer with a 2 kWp PV system for both ancillary services, adding a 10 kWh battery for the peak shaving case. Curtailing power to comply with the maximum power exchange with the grid does not create any significant change in the LCoE of the PV system, keeping it near 0.072 €/kWh for permitted return grid powers above 1.25 kW. Scenarios closer to zero-injection increase exponentially the LCoE to 0.222 €/kWh. Using a semi-empirical ageing model, we estimated the degradation of the batteries for the cases with and without providing peak shaving, concluding that doing peak-shaving to avoid demanding more than 1 kW from the grid extends the battery life by up to 320 % while increasing its LCoS only 9.5 % when compared to a zero-consumption scenario due to the reduced depth-of-discharge and number of cycles. The results suggest that power curtailment and peak shaving can be attractive for prosumers, thus creating opportunities for ancillary services business models at the residential scale.
...
In low-voltage distribution networks, the high penetration of renewable energy generators in residential buildings has proven challenging for system operators. In response, the grid operators can reinforce the grid infrastructure or deploy battery energy storage systems throughout the network to compensate for the voltage fluctuations. Alternatively, new energy markets for ancillary services have been proposed to involve the prosumers; however, most are at medium and high voltage levels. This paper investigates, from a cost perspective, what conditions can make it attractive for individual prosumers to participate in a low-voltage ancillary service market, specifically power curtailment and peak shaving. We considered a prosumer with a 2 kWp PV system for both ancillary services, adding a 10 kWh battery for the peak shaving case. Curtailing power to comply with the maximum power exchange with the grid does not create any significant change in the LCoE of the PV system, keeping it near 0.072 €/kWh for permitted return grid powers above 1.25 kW. Scenarios closer to zero-injection increase exponentially the LCoE to 0.222 €/kWh. Using a semi-empirical ageing model, we estimated the degradation of the batteries for the cases with and without providing peak shaving, concluding that doing peak-shaving to avoid demanding more than 1 kW from the grid extends the battery life by up to 320 % while increasing its LCoS only 9.5 % when compared to a zero-consumption scenario due to the reduced depth-of-discharge and number of cycles. The results suggest that power curtailment and peak shaving can be attractive for prosumers, thus creating opportunities for ancillary services business models at the residential scale.
Conference paper
(2024)
-
Joel Alpizar Castillo, Carina Engström, Laura Ramirez Elizondo, Pavol Bauer
The massive deployment of PV systems in residential buildings is causing voltage challenges in low-voltage distribution networks. Worldwide, DSOs started requesting users to curtail power when this is injected back into the grid. Although many commercially available inverters can perform curtailment, the degradation effects of curtailment still have to be investigated. This paper estimated how power curtailment affects the reliability of a boost converter working below MPPT voltages. Using the mission profile method, we determined the conduction and switching losses on the converter switch as the critical component, based on its temperature and current profiles. The results suggest that curtailing the power requires the operation point to move towards lower PV voltages, leading to deeper thermal cycles, therefore reducing the expected lifetime of the converter by up to 80 % for power injection into the grid below 1.5 kW. From the operational perspective, this might require premature replacements compared to operating under MPP conditions, affecting the revenue forecast before the enforcement of curtailment. For power injection above 1.5 kW, the LCoE does not change compared to the case without considering the degradation. However, near zero-injection conditions, the difference in LCoE between considering and not considering replacements increases exponentially up to 135 %.
...
The massive deployment of PV systems in residential buildings is causing voltage challenges in low-voltage distribution networks. Worldwide, DSOs started requesting users to curtail power when this is injected back into the grid. Although many commercially available inverters can perform curtailment, the degradation effects of curtailment still have to be investigated. This paper estimated how power curtailment affects the reliability of a boost converter working below MPPT voltages. Using the mission profile method, we determined the conduction and switching losses on the converter switch as the critical component, based on its temperature and current profiles. The results suggest that curtailing the power requires the operation point to move towards lower PV voltages, leading to deeper thermal cycles, therefore reducing the expected lifetime of the converter by up to 80 % for power injection into the grid below 1.5 kW. From the operational perspective, this might require premature replacements compared to operating under MPP conditions, affecting the revenue forecast before the enforcement of curtailment. For power injection above 1.5 kW, the LCoE does not change compared to the case without considering the degradation. However, near zero-injection conditions, the difference in LCoE between considering and not considering replacements increases exponentially up to 135 %.
The energy transition requires electrical alternatives for domestic heating. Heat pumps are the most common alternatives to gas boilers. However, heat pumps consume a significant amount of electrical power. We simulated an 18-node low voltage network with five buildings with six apartments each to evaluate the effect of deploying heat pumps as part of multi-carrier energy systems at the residential level. We also combined heat pumps with solar collectors and thermal energy storage to quantity whether a more complex system benefits the low-voltage network. Replacing the gas boilers for heat pumps in the majority of the buildings resulted in voltage drops below the limit of the standard EN50160. The voltage drops were significantly improved when we included solar collectors and thermal energy storage in the domestic heating system.
...
The energy transition requires electrical alternatives for domestic heating. Heat pumps are the most common alternatives to gas boilers. However, heat pumps consume a significant amount of electrical power. We simulated an 18-node low voltage network with five buildings with six apartments each to evaluate the effect of deploying heat pumps as part of multi-carrier energy systems at the residential level. We also combined heat pumps with solar collectors and thermal energy storage to quantity whether a more complex system benefits the low-voltage network. Replacing the gas boilers for heat pumps in the majority of the buildings resulted in voltage drops below the limit of the standard EN50160. The voltage drops were significantly improved when we included solar collectors and thermal energy storage in the domestic heating system.
Conference paper
(2023)
-
Sang Jae Kouwerberg, J.J. Alpizar Castillo, L.M. Ramirez Elizondo, P. Bauer
Batteries are one of the main tools to provide the flexibility distribution and transmission systems need due to their increasing dependence on weather conditions. However, environmental and economic factors pose a significant problem. New types of batteries that do not rely on rare earth metals and organic solvents but instead use water and more common ions could be a cost-effective and environmentally safe way to provide energy storage in the future. We studied the performance of sea-salt cells designed as a low-cost, environmentally friendly method to store electricity. We used a constant current charge/discharge test with different currents, from 50 mA to 300 mA, to identify the maximum efficiencies of the cell. Then, we introduced a new strategy to determine the cut-off voltage to discharge the battery, inspired by the maximum power point found in photovoltaics. We used a constant voltage charge to determine the cell’s energy density. However, evidence of side reactions urged us to use constant current charge/discharge tests to identify the battery’s capacity based on the efficiencies drop. Results showed a maximum energy efficiency of 74.6% at 200 mA and a maximum Coulombic efficiency of 88.7% at 300 mA. The cut-off voltage of the cell during discharge should be between 1.4 V and 1.6 V. The energy densities range from 10.1 Wh/kg(6.53 WhL) with an efficiency of 57.5% and 4.18 Wh/kg(2.7 WhL) with an efficiency of 69.8%.
...
Batteries are one of the main tools to provide the flexibility distribution and transmission systems need due to their increasing dependence on weather conditions. However, environmental and economic factors pose a significant problem. New types of batteries that do not rely on rare earth metals and organic solvents but instead use water and more common ions could be a cost-effective and environmentally safe way to provide energy storage in the future. We studied the performance of sea-salt cells designed as a low-cost, environmentally friendly method to store electricity. We used a constant current charge/discharge test with different currents, from 50 mA to 300 mA, to identify the maximum efficiencies of the cell. Then, we introduced a new strategy to determine the cut-off voltage to discharge the battery, inspired by the maximum power point found in photovoltaics. We used a constant voltage charge to determine the cell’s energy density. However, evidence of side reactions urged us to use constant current charge/discharge tests to identify the battery’s capacity based on the efficiencies drop. Results showed a maximum energy efficiency of 74.6% at 200 mA and a maximum Coulombic efficiency of 88.7% at 300 mA. The cut-off voltage of the cell during discharge should be between 1.4 V and 1.6 V. The energy densities range from 10.1 Wh/kg(6.53 WhL) with an efficiency of 57.5% and 4.18 Wh/kg(2.7 WhL) with an efficiency of 69.8%.
Open-Access Model of a PV–BESS System
Quantifying Power and Energy Exchange for Peak-Shaving and Self Consumption Applications
Journal article
(2023)
-
Joel Alpizar Castillo, Victor Vega-Garita, Nishant Narayan, Laura Ramirez Elizondo
Energy storage is vital for a future where energy generation transitions from a fossil fuels-based one to an energy system that relies heavily on clean energy sources such as photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. To foster this transition, engineers and practitioners must have open-access models of PV systems coupled with battery storage systems (BESS). These models are fundamental to quantifying their economic and technical merits during the design phase. This paper contributes in this direction by carefully describing a model that accurately represents the power directions and energy dealings between the PV modules, the battery pack, and the loads. Moreover, the general model can be implemented using two different PV generation methods, the Gaussian model and the meteorological data-based model (MDB). We found that the MDB model is more appropriate for short-term analysis compared to the Gaussian model, while for long-term studies, the Gaussian model is closer to measured data. Moreover, the proposed model can reproduce two different energy management strategies: peak-shaving and maximizing self-consumption, allowing them to be used during PV–BESS sizing stages. Furthermore, the results obtained by the simulation are closed when compared to a real grid-tied PV–BESS, demonstrating the model’s validity.
...
Energy storage is vital for a future where energy generation transitions from a fossil fuels-based one to an energy system that relies heavily on clean energy sources such as photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. To foster this transition, engineers and practitioners must have open-access models of PV systems coupled with battery storage systems (BESS). These models are fundamental to quantifying their economic and technical merits during the design phase. This paper contributes in this direction by carefully describing a model that accurately represents the power directions and energy dealings between the PV modules, the battery pack, and the loads. Moreover, the general model can be implemented using two different PV generation methods, the Gaussian model and the meteorological data-based model (MDB). We found that the MDB model is more appropriate for short-term analysis compared to the Gaussian model, while for long-term studies, the Gaussian model is closer to measured data. Moreover, the proposed model can reproduce two different energy management strategies: peak-shaving and maximizing self-consumption, allowing them to be used during PV–BESS sizing stages. Furthermore, the results obtained by the simulation are closed when compared to a real grid-tied PV–BESS, demonstrating the model’s validity.
Conference paper
(2023)
-
Dario Slaifstein, Joel Alpizar Castillo, Alvaro Menendez Agudin, Laura Ramirez Elizondo, Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli, Pavol Bauer
In the context of building electrification the operation of distributed energy resources integrating multiple energy carriers poses a significant challenge. Such an operation calls for an energy management system that decides the set-points of the primary control layer in the best way possible. This is done by fulfilling user requirements, minimizing costs, and balancing local generation with energy storage. This last component is what enables building flexibility. This paper presents a novel aging-aware strategy for operating grid-connected buildings that combine multiple energy carriers (heat and electricity), storage devices (electric vehicles, batteries, and thermal storage), and power sources (solar photovoltaics, solar collectors). The novel energy management algorithm presented considers the aging of the batteries to enhance the operational differences between storage technologies, thus making explicit the trade-off between the services provided by the hybrid energy storage system and its degradation. This unlocks grid cost reductions between 20–45 % depending on the season when compared to state-of-the-art solutions.
...
In the context of building electrification the operation of distributed energy resources integrating multiple energy carriers poses a significant challenge. Such an operation calls for an energy management system that decides the set-points of the primary control layer in the best way possible. This is done by fulfilling user requirements, minimizing costs, and balancing local generation with energy storage. This last component is what enables building flexibility. This paper presents a novel aging-aware strategy for operating grid-connected buildings that combine multiple energy carriers (heat and electricity), storage devices (electric vehicles, batteries, and thermal storage), and power sources (solar photovoltaics, solar collectors). The novel energy management algorithm presented considers the aging of the batteries to enhance the operational differences between storage technologies, thus making explicit the trade-off between the services provided by the hybrid energy storage system and its degradation. This unlocks grid cost reductions between 20–45 % depending on the season when compared to state-of-the-art solutions.
Fifth-generation energy networks are combined networks of heat and electricity, that have the ability to generate, distribute, store and share energy between consumers. Knowledge on the dynamic behaviour of the physical phenomena related to energy generation, distribution and storage provides insight into the performance of the system as a whole. A mixed-integer linear algorithm is proposed, implementing a partitioned clustering program for subsequent classification of typical demand, grouping specific days with similar demand profiles together. From this arrangement, the optimal network configuration can be determined using an objective function, minimizing the economic and environmental impact. To validate the optimization results, a simulation of the network was built, which mimics its physical dynamic behaviour, and through which the distribution and storage capabilities of the network can be assessed. Advanced advice on fifth-generation energy networks is presented that can be applied to early-stage network design, reducing costs and emissions, along with data on the implementation of renewable energy technologies and their performance. Additionally, this research provides the foundation for numerical modelling of such energy networks which contributes to future research.
...
Fifth-generation energy networks are combined networks of heat and electricity, that have the ability to generate, distribute, store and share energy between consumers. Knowledge on the dynamic behaviour of the physical phenomena related to energy generation, distribution and storage provides insight into the performance of the system as a whole. A mixed-integer linear algorithm is proposed, implementing a partitioned clustering program for subsequent classification of typical demand, grouping specific days with similar demand profiles together. From this arrangement, the optimal network configuration can be determined using an objective function, minimizing the economic and environmental impact. To validate the optimization results, a simulation of the network was built, which mimics its physical dynamic behaviour, and through which the distribution and storage capabilities of the network can be assessed. Advanced advice on fifth-generation energy networks is presented that can be applied to early-stage network design, reducing costs and emissions, along with data on the implementation of renewable energy technologies and their performance. Additionally, this research provides the foundation for numerical modelling of such energy networks which contributes to future research.
Conference paper
(2022)
-
Marco Stecca, Wiljan Vermeer, Thiago Batista Soeiro, Laura Ramirez Elizondo, Pavol Bauer, Peter Palensky
This paper discusses the design and optimization of electric vehicles’ fast-charging stations with on-site photovoltaic energy production and a battery energy storage system. Three scenarios, varying the number of chargers, distance from the main grid, and on-site photovoltaic generation potential, are investigated. Such scenarios are benchmarked in investment, operating costs, and grid connection requirements. The addition of a battery storage system is also evaluated to reduce the operating cost and, therefore, boost the system’s economic parameters, such as the net present value, and increase the grid independence.The analysis shows that the addition of the battery system can be effective in both performance metrics, the reduction of the grid connection, which can be reduced up to 80% by the addition of a large size battery, and the increase of the net present value, which can be even doubled with respect to the case when the battery storage system is not installed.
...
This paper discusses the design and optimization of electric vehicles’ fast-charging stations with on-site photovoltaic energy production and a battery energy storage system. Three scenarios, varying the number of chargers, distance from the main grid, and on-site photovoltaic generation potential, are investigated. Such scenarios are benchmarked in investment, operating costs, and grid connection requirements. The addition of a battery storage system is also evaluated to reduce the operating cost and, therefore, boost the system’s economic parameters, such as the net present value, and increase the grid independence.The analysis shows that the addition of the battery system can be effective in both performance metrics, the reduction of the grid connection, which can be reduced up to 80% by the addition of a large size battery, and the increase of the net present value, which can be even doubled with respect to the case when the battery storage system is not installed.
Renewable energy power plants and transport and heating electrification projects are being deployed to enable the replacement of fossil fuels as the primary energy source. This transition encourages distributed generation but makes the grid more weather-dependent, thus reducing its inertia. Simultaneously, electrical network operators face voltage, frequency, and stability challenges at the distribution level. Networks were not designed to manage the stochasticity of renewable energy sources or the congestion caused by the new transport and heating demands. Such challenges are commonly addressed through infrastructure reinforcements. This review studies how energy storage systems with different carriers can provide a collaborative solution involving prosumers as ancillary services providers at the distribution level. We focused on the European urban context; thus, we analyzed renewable energy sources, batteries, supercapacitors, hydrogen fuel cells, thermal energy storage, and electric vehicles. A thorough review of successful implementations proved that including storage in one or more carriers benefits the distribution system operators and the prosumers, from both technical and economic perspectives. We propose a correlation between individual energy storage technologies and the ancillary services they can provide based on their responses to specific grid requirements. Therefore, distribution system operators can address network issues together with the prosumers. Nevertheless, attractive regulatory frameworks and business models are required to motivate prosumers to use their assets to support the grid. Further work is recommended to describe the joint operation of multiple storage technologies as multicarrier systems, focusing on the coupling of electrical and thermal energy storage. Additionally, how ancillary services affect the energy storage system’s aging should be studied.
...
Renewable energy power plants and transport and heating electrification projects are being deployed to enable the replacement of fossil fuels as the primary energy source. This transition encourages distributed generation but makes the grid more weather-dependent, thus reducing its inertia. Simultaneously, electrical network operators face voltage, frequency, and stability challenges at the distribution level. Networks were not designed to manage the stochasticity of renewable energy sources or the congestion caused by the new transport and heating demands. Such challenges are commonly addressed through infrastructure reinforcements. This review studies how energy storage systems with different carriers can provide a collaborative solution involving prosumers as ancillary services providers at the distribution level. We focused on the European urban context; thus, we analyzed renewable energy sources, batteries, supercapacitors, hydrogen fuel cells, thermal energy storage, and electric vehicles. A thorough review of successful implementations proved that including storage in one or more carriers benefits the distribution system operators and the prosumers, from both technical and economic perspectives. We propose a correlation between individual energy storage technologies and the ancillary services they can provide based on their responses to specific grid requirements. Therefore, distribution system operators can address network issues together with the prosumers. Nevertheless, attractive regulatory frameworks and business models are required to motivate prosumers to use their assets to support the grid. Further work is recommended to describe the joint operation of multiple storage technologies as multicarrier systems, focusing on the coupling of electrical and thermal energy storage. Additionally, how ancillary services affect the energy storage system’s aging should be studied.