Young people across Europe face growing barriers to securing affordable, stable, and appropriate housing. This article reviews how mainstream housing policies, such as social rental provision, housing allowances, rent regulation, and homeownership support shape young people’s opportunities, often in unequal or unintended ways. It also examines emerging, more youth-oriented approaches including flexible housing, intermediate tenures, collaborative housing, do-ityourself models, anti-squat programmes, and shared living arrangements. By comparing the advantages and limitations of these interventions, the article highlights the need for coherent, supply-oriented, and tenure-neutral youth housing policies, as well as meaningful youth participation, to improve housing outcomes for younger generations. ... Read more

In Amsterdam, young people face persistent housing difficulties due to soaring house prices and rents, precarious labour conditions, shrinking social housing, and ongoing gentrification. Drawing on 40 in-depth life course interviews, this paper investigates how young people navigate these constraints and how their housing strategies intertwine with other aspects of their lives and existing policies. By combining the Housing Pathway and Capability Approaches, we offer a fresh perspective on the structural and personal factors shaping housing trajectories. Empirically, we conclude that the severity of Amsterdam’s housing problem directly shapes young people’s labour and educational choices. Furthermore, housing opportunities and strategies differ significantly among young people, a variation that only emerges through qualitative research and attention to conversion factors. Theoretically, we demonstrate the added value of integrating the two frameworks: the Housing Pathway Approach enhances the Capability Approach methodologically, while the latter reinforces the normative and policy-relevant aspects of the first. ... Read more

Students and young people in training across the EU are seriously affected by the housing crisis, facing high housing costs, shortages, and insecurity to varying degrees across Member States. This negatively affects students’ wellbeing, educational outcomes, and even regional competitiveness. Building on the Commission’s European Affordable Housing Plan (EAHP), this study proposes six policy actions focused on increasing dedicated student housing, integrating student housing into broader policy strategies, and investing in innovation, research, and knowledge exchange. This document was prepared at the request of the Special Committee on the Housing Crisis in the European Union (HOUS). ... Read more

‘Generation Rent’ refers to the disproportionate presence of young people in the private rental sector due to declining access to homeownership, a phenomenon that first emerged in the liberal housing systems of the United Kingdom and the United States. This study examines whether the concept is also relevant in more government-steered housing systems, such as that of the Netherlands. Drawing on data from the large-scale Dutch housing needs surveys (WoON), we find that while the Dutch system long resisted tendencies associated with Generation Rent, the past 15 years of neoliberal policies have significantly altered this trajectory. The outcome is growing inequality between the young adults who achieve homeownership, often through intergenerational support, and those who remain in the rental sector. To mitigate this divide, we propose revitalising the rental sector and introducing tenure-neutral housing policies. ... Read more

Drawing on extensive documentary analysis, this article traces the evolution of British energy policy support since World War II. It analyses shifts in policy design through two interpretive lenses: eligibility (residualist vs. universalist) and function (compensatory vs. preventive). While the UK was once a global leader in preventive, relatively broad-based energy efficiency investments, since the 1980s it has moved increasingly towards reactive, narrowly targeted schemes, mostly delivered through energy supplier obligations and providing means-tested relief. Moments of crisis, such as the oil shocks of the 1970s and the recent energy price surge, prompted temporary shifts to universalism, but such measures have proved short-lived. While successive governments emphasised the many co-benefits of energy efficiency schemes, they remain inconsistently implemented and underfunded. We argue that the persistence of residualist-compensatory models is driven by political, institutional, and ideational factors. To make sense of these developments, we introduce a typology of four models - residualist compensatory, residualist-preventive, universalist-compensatory, and universalist-preventive- which is used to map key policy shifts and assess their implications. We conclude by explaining that a transition towards a universalist-preventive approach must be grounded in a rights-based framework. ... Read more

Urban regeneration has emerged as a critical strategy for addressing housing shortages and spatial inefficiencies in rapidly urbanizing megacities. However, many urban regeneration approaches are market-driven and often prioritize economic growth over social equity, leading to persistent gaps in affordable housing delivery. This study investigates the institutional barriers to affordable housing provision in Shenzhen, China—a pioneer in market-oriented urban regeneration—through a neo-institutional economics (NIE) lens. Combining policy analysis and 26 semi-structured interviews with government officials, developers, and residents, the research identifies three interconnected institutional obstacles: (1) ambiguous property rights rooted in the rural-urban dual land system, which prolongs negotiation and approval processes; (2) high transaction costs arising from fragmented governance and bureaucratic complexities; and (3) misaligned incentives among stakeholders that prioritize commercial gains over public welfare. Empirical findings reveal that over 80% of urban village regeneration projects face delays exceeding one year due to tenure disputes, while 70% of developers spatially marginalize affordable housing to maximize profits. These dynamics form a self-reinforcing “institutional trap,” where path dependency on land-finance regimes and weak regulatory constraints perpetuate housing inequity. The study contributes to urban scholarship by adapting insights from New Institutional Economics into an integrative tripartite analytical lens (“institutional structure–transaction costs–behavioural choices”, STB) that traces cascading transaction costs across project stages and links them to actors’ strategic, normative and reputational behaviours in Shenzhen’s market-driven regeneration regime. It challenges the assumption that market efficiency aligns with social goals and underscores the need for institutional reforms to reconcile growth with equity. Policymakers must address structural contradictions, such as rigid land ownership regimes and decentralized governance, to break the low-equilibrium trap. The findings hold global relevance for megacities grappling with similar tensions between market-driven regeneration and inclusive development. ... Read more

Europe faces a housing affordability crisis that impacts all age groups, with particularly pronounced implications for young people. For them, the crisis may have far-reaching consequences, affecting educational and employment opportunities, household composition and formation, and current and future well-being. This report examines the housing situation of the EU population, with a specific focus on young people. It shows that, across several metrics, young people generally experience the housing crisis more acutely than older cohorts. Young people looking for housing in urban centres and popular tourist destinations face particularly significant challenges. Survey data suggest that the housing crisis is impeding household formation, with many young adults living in the parental home when they would prefer to live independently or with a partner. The report also highlights various types of policies that have been put in place to address housing affordability challenges. ... Read more

Sommige groepen komen er niet of moeilijk tussen op de woningmarkt. Zo kunnen jongeren steeds minder vaak een huis kopen. Niet alleen door stijgende prijzen, maar ook omdat ze soms zoveel huur betalen dat sparen voor een koopwoning niet meer lukt. Deze zogeheten generation rent is te rijk voor sociale huur en heeft te weinig inkomen voor een koophuis en is daarmee aangewezen tot de dure vrije huursector. De TU Delft heeft op basis van data uit het WoONonderzoek 2024 onderzocht of er ook in Nederland sprake is van zo’n generatie, wat de oorzaken daarvan zijn en welke mogelijkheden er zijn om de private huursector aantrekkelijker te maken voor deze groep. ... Read more

In response to the European Green Deal's climate neutrality objectives, the Netherlands introduced the National Climate Agreement ("Klimaatakkoord"), which sets ambitious long term targets for reducing national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with the building sector as a critical focus. For Dutch Social Housing, which accounts for a third of the residential housing sector in the Netherlands, stricter mandates apply in the short term: all social housing units with suboptimal EFG energy labels must be upgraded to higher standards by 2028. Despite these ambitious targets, the renovation practices of Dutch Housing Associations (HAs) are stagnating, raising doubts as to whether this goal can be achieved. Dutch HAs act in a complex environment, and their decision-making process is influenced by institutional arrangements, stakeholder interactions, and market conditions, which create uncertainties and barriers in determining effective pathways for energy-efficient renovation (EER). Understanding these barriers is crucial to formulating effective strategies, such as targeted incentives or behavioural nudges, to enhance EER adoption. This article presents a conceptual framework for understanding and analysing barriers of Dutch HAs to EER adoption. It includes a literature review on the institutional context of Dutch HAs, outlines the typical EER decision-making process, and identifies barriers documented in existing research and expert interviews. The results from the interviews with four Dutch HA show practical applicability and insights into barriers. Mayor barriers lie in institutional compliance and interaction with tenants. The conceptual framework contributes to a deeper understanding of decision-making barriers of EER projects and offers insights to guide policy interventions and future research on promoting EER in the social housing sector. ... Read more

Rising energy prices across Europe have increased concerns over energy poverty. Despite significant scholarly focus on financial relief measures instituted by national governments, locally tailored crisis measures have remained overlooked. This study delves into the Dutch context, where part of the government's response to the energy crisis was decentralised, allowing municipalities considerable discretion in experimenting with energy poverty interventions. It compares two strategies: ‘energy coaching’ services – offering advice on sustainable energy practices – and shallow retrofitting by ‘fix teams’ – installing minor energy-saving measures in homes. The impact of these interventions on residential comfort, sustainable behaviour adoption, and (financial concerns regarding) energy bills is assessed through an extensive survey involving treatment and control groups coupled with detailed administrative data on households and dwellings. Results indicate that, on an aggregate level, local interventions significantly enhanced perceived comfort and reduced energy bills among the treatment groups. Comparing individual interventions, notably, more extensive ones such as fix teams and comprehensive energy coaching were significantly more impactful than those involving a single visit, highlighting the importance of continuous engagement. Additionally, we found that energy poverty status significantly amplified the effectiveness of these interventions, thereby stressing the importance of focusing efforts on vulnerable households. ... Read more

The energy crisis, that began in 2021 has exacerbated energy poverty throughout Europe. Households with lower incomes, higher energy requirements, and less efficient homes and appliances are disproportionately affected by this crisis. These households often lack the financial capacity to upgrade outdated and inefficient appliances, such as refrigerators and washing machines. This then leads to increased energy costs or necessitates cutbacks in other energy uses such as heating, which in turn diminishes their residential comfort. In response to this issue, the Dutch government has implemented various strategies to mitigate energy poverty, including the 'White Goods Scheme'. The term ‘White Goods Schemes’ usually refers to a governmental initiative that offers financial incentives or assistance to consumers to encourage the purchase of new, energy-efficient household appliances. Despite such initiatives, there is hardly any research evaluating their effectiveness. This study examined the impact of the 'White Goods Scheme' in two regions of the Netherlands, by means of a questionnaire among residents (N = 541), comparing households that have made use of a white goods scheme (intervention group; N = 310) with households that have not yet made use of a white goods scheme (control group; N = 231). The findings show that the white goods schemes have the potential to improve residential comfort conditions, enhance physical health and reduce energy costs and financial concerns, yield better mental health. Yet, the causal mechanisms behind these connections need to be further scrutinised. While the scheme has demonstrated positive outcomes in terms of comfort, financial well-being and health, it is suggested that combining improvements like shallow retrofits and appliance schemes with other local support initiatives like energy advice is essential to address energy poverty, effectively. ... Read more

This chapter shows how different constellations of state, market actors and civil actors lead to different housing policies and outcomes, both over space and time. This process is illustrated by an analysis of the Dutch housing system. ... Read more

Decisions made by social housing providers (SHPs) profoundly affect their tenants' energy affordability, a group characterised by above-average energy poverty rates. Concentrated deprivation in this tenure has intensified due to policy-driven ‘residualisation’, compelling SHPs to serve almost exclusively low-income and marginalised households. Despite this, research exploring the potential of SHPs to tackle energy poverty through targeted interventions for their most vulnerable tenants remains sparse. The 2021–2022 energy price crisis offers a unique context to investigate this issue, given its substantial impact on household energy affordability. This study delves into insights of social housing professionals through focus groups conducted in France, England, and the Netherlands. It examines their views on the effectiveness of interventions and assesses their feasibility within the respective institutional contexts. We find that SHPs generally favour retrofit prioritisation and behavioural interventions as effective means of supporting at-risk tenants, whereas alterations in rent setting or housing allocation are considered potentially impactful but often undesirable or impracticable. We identify institutional barriers and lack of data as key obstacles to SHPs' adoption of more targeted interventions. To empower SHPs in tackling energy poverty, housing policy reforms must acknowledge and address the significant impact of energy costs within total housing expenses. ... Read more

While governments have been promoting private renting in recent decades to increase housing supply, they have not necessarily facilitated this. The Netherlands is a case in point, as rent price control has been reduced in this century with the aim to give more leeway to private rental investment. Private renting achieved a turn-around in market share from 10 per cent of dwellings in 2009 to more than 13 per cent in 2023. Most of this growth can be attributed to the rental segment where rents were not controlled: it increased to about 50% of rental dwellings in 2021. Recently increasing housing shortages followed by societal unrest and elections caused the Dutch government to formulate new plans. Not only was the building of 1 million housing units programmed and stimulated, also plans to (temporarily) re-control rents of a large part of the de-controlled rental segment were formulated. Tax measures reducing the attractiveness of investment in private renting have been taken recently as well because of diverse reasons (protecting tenants; court decision on taxing wealth). To study these effects on private renting investments, this study aims to analyze the effects of these changes on the investment behavior of landlords in the Netherlands, in a context of rising inflation. The two studies in this contribution show that new supply will most likely lose out. ... Read more

Van bruin naar rood: het bouwen van woningen op veehouderijlocaties vormt een uitweg uit de stikstofproblematiek die Nederland in de greep houdt. Uiteraard is deze stap complex en gevoelig, maar op bepaalde locaties is het toch heel goed mogelijk. TU Delft-afstudeerder Samuel Orobio de Castro deed onderzoek naar de kansen en randvoorwaarden, met een vorm van ontwikkelend onderzoek. ... Read more

The European energy crisis of 2022 stresses the importance of protecting the most vulnerable households. Price peaks disproportionally affect households with low incomes, limited savings, and inefficient homes, and increased energy poverty: the inability to secure sufficient domestic energy services that allow for participation in society (Bouzarovski & Petrova, 2015).

Since European social housing countries have become increasingly residualised, a significant share of households in or at risk of energy poverty are being accommodated by social housing providers (Poggio & Whitehead, 2017; Walker, 2008). However, while most practitioners acknowledge that social housing providers (SHPs) have a responsibility in energy poverty alleviation, targeted intervention approaches have hardly been explored (Desvallees, 2022). The body of scholarship on energy poverty measurement has grown rapidly, but its use in practice has hardly been addressed (Bouzarovski et al., 2021). Sherriff et al. (2019) note that a possible explanation might be that insights from research are inadequately communicated to policymakers and practitioners. Charlier and Legendre (2021) add that the sense of urgency has substantially differed across countries.

This paper aims to combat these gaps, by proactively engaging with practitioners across Europe to find out which targeted intervention approaches are considered most effective, what their benefits and potential (regulatory) obstacles are, and whether these perspectives differ in different policy contexts. We indirectly examine the responsibilities SHPs are willing to accept within a ‘just transition’, and explore whether, and if so how, their apparent techno-economic approach to retrofit provision could be altered (De Feijter et al., 2019). ... Read more

This Guidebook is the final deliverable of the work package 4 (WP4) of the UPLIFT project. The overall aim of this work package was to explore how young people’s voices can be put at the centre of youth policy. In order to do this, we carried out four parallel policy co-creation processes with young people in four different locations across Europe, each with a different focus – education, housing and NEET youth. The process took the best part of three years and involved several institutional stakeholders, as well as dozens of young people. This deliverable is a comprehensive outlook of the WP4 work in all four locations – Tallin, Sfântu Gheorghe, Barakaldo and Amsterdam. ... Read more