Seismic interferometry (SI) retrieves the Green function between two receiver locations using their recordings from a boundary of sources. When using sources and receivers only at the surface, the virtual-source gathers retrieved by SI contain pseudo-physical reflections as well as ghost (non-physical) reflections. These ghost reflections are the results of the cross-correlation or auto-correlation (AC) of primary reflections from two different depth levels, and they contain information about the seismic properties of specific layers in the subsurface. We investigated the application of ghost reflections for layer-specific characterization of the shallow subsurface using SI by AC. First, we showed the technique's potential using synthetic data for a subsurface model with a lateral change in velocity, a gradient in depth for velocity, a thickness change and a velocity change of the target layer. Then, we applied the technique to shallow subsurface field data. We also focused on improving the retrieval of ghost reflections by removing the free-surface multiples and muting undesired events in active-source gathers before applying SI. Our results demonstrate that the ghost reflections can be used advantageously to characterize the layer that causes them to appear in the results of SI. Consequently, they can also provide valuable information for imaging and monitoring shallow subsurface structures.

CO2 capture and underground storage, combined with geothermal resource exploitation, are vital for future sustainable and renewable energy. The SUCCEED project explores the feasibility of re-injecting CO2 into geothermal fields to enhance production and store CO2 for climate change mitigation. This integration requires novel time-lapse monitoring approaches. At the Hellisheiði geothermal power plant in Iceland, seismic surveys utilizing conventional geophones and a permanent fiber-optic helically wound cable (HWC) for Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) were designed to provide subsurface information and CO2 monitoring. This work details the feasibility study and active seismic acquisition of the baseline survey, focusing on optical fiber sensitivity, seismic modeling, acquisition parameters, source configurations, and quality control. Post-acquisition signal analysis using a novel electromagnetic vibrating source is discussed. The integrated analysis of datasets from co-located sensors improved quality-control performance and geophysical interpretation. The study demonstrates the advantages of using densely sampled DAS data in space by multichannel processing. This experimental work highlights the feasibility of using HWC DAS cables in active surface seismic surveys with an environmentally friendly electromagnetic source, providing also a unique case of joint signal analysis from different types of sensors in high-temperature geothermal areas for energy and CO2 storage monitoring in a time-lapse perspective.

Knowledge about the temporal evolution of a volcano is fundamental for an accurate understanding of the occurring physical dynamic processes and an appropriate assessment of the most probable near‐future volcanic scenarios. Using seismic data recorded in the area of one of the most hazardous volcanoes along the Argentina–Chile, international border—Copahue volcano, we obtain information for an improved interpretation of the processes that occurred before, during, and after eruptive events. We use a single‐station methodology to assess variations in the mechanical properties and internal structure of the Copahue volcano. Thus, we obtain information about structural alterations, friction and fractures, and variations in rigidity in the volcanic system. Our results show that the time variations of the evaluated seismic parameters correlate to the volcanic phenomena observed on the surface, that is, incandescence and ash emissions. Accounting for the physical processes, to which the analyzed seismic parameters are sensitive, and previous models developed for the area, we propose a physical model explaining the eruptive events that occurred at Copahue in the period 2018–2023. This model can potentially be used for the assessment of future scenarios, which is of fundamental importance for the institutions in charge of the real‐time monitoring of Copahue volcano to improve the quality of their evidence‐based decisions.

Geothermal power production may result in significant CO2 emissions as part of the produced steam. CO2 capture, utilisation, subsurface storage (CCUS) and developments to exploit geothermal resources are focal points for future clean and renewable energy strategies. The Synergetic Utilisation of CO2 Storage Coupled with Geothermal Energy Deployment (SUCCEED) project aims to demonstrate the feasibility of using produced CO2 for re-injection in the geothermal field to improve geothermal performance, while also storing the CO2 as an action for climate change mitigation. Our study has the aim to develop innovative reservoir-monitoring technologies via active-source seismic data acquisition using a novel electric seismic vibrator source and permanently installed helically wound cable (HWC) fibre-optic distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) system. Implemented together with auxiliary multi-component (3C and 2C) geophone receiver arrays, this approach gave us the opportunity to compare and cross-validate the results using wavefields from different acquisition systems. We present the results of the baseline survey of a time-lapse monitoring project at the Hellisheiði geothermal field in Iceland. We perform tomographic inversion and multichannel seismic processing to investigate both the shallower and the deeper basaltic rocks targets. The wavefield analysis is supported by seismic modelling. The HWC DAS and the geophone-stacked sections show good consistency, highlighting the same reflection zones. The comparison of the new DAS technology with the well-known standard geophone acquisition proves the effectiveness and reliability of using broadside sensitivity HWC DAS in surface monitoring applications.

Lack of data and urban noise pose significant challenges to monitoring anthropogenic seismicity in densely populated areas such as the Randstad region in the Netherlands. We deployed a temporary seismic array to monitor a geothermal doublet located at Kwintsheul, Netherlands. We implement innovative array processing, beamforming, and ML automatic-picking techniques to detect low-magnitude microseismic events that could be obscured by urban noise. Additionally, we propose a novel method to incorporate model uncertainties into hypocenter estimations based on the open-access subsurface information of the Netherlands. Contrary to previous studies, our analysis clearly shows that local low-magnitude seismicity does exist and highlights the value of denser seismic arrays and novel detection techniques for monitoring anthropogenic seismicity. The proposed hypocenter localization aids in avoiding under- or overestimation of location uncertainties, which is crucial for informed decision-making. This study advances seismic monitoring techniques in urban geothermal settings, providing critical data for informed decisionmaking and risk assessment of geothermal operations.

Seismic interferometry (SI) retrieves new seismic responses, for example reflections, between either receivers or sources. When SI is applied to a reflection survey with active sources and receivers at the surface, non-physical (ghost) reflections are retrieved as well. Ghost reflections, retrieved from the correlation of two primary reflections or multiples from two different depth levels, are only sensitive to the properties in the layer that cause them to appear in the result of SI, such as velocity, density and thickness. We aim to use these ghost reflections for monitoring subsurface changes, to address challenges associated with detecting and isolating changes within the target layer in monitoring. We focus on the feasibility of monitoring pore-pressure changes in the Groningen gas field in the Netherlands using ghost reflections. To achieve this, we utilize numerical modelling to simulate scalar reflection data, deploying sources and receivers at the surface. To build up subsurface models for monitoring purposes, we perform an ultrasonic transmission laboratory experiment to measure S-wave velocities at different pore pressures. Applying SI by autocorrelation to the modelled data sets, we retrieve zero-offset ghost reflections. Using a correlation operator, we determine time differences between a baseline survey and monitoring surveys. To enhance the ability to detect small changes, we propose subsampling the ghost reflections before the correlation operator and using only virtual sources with a complete illumination of receivers. We demonstrate that the retrieved time differences between the ghost reflections exhibit variations corresponding to velocity changes inside the reservoir. This highlights the potential of ghost reflections as valuable indicators for monitoring even small changes. We also investigate the effect of the sources and receivers’ geometry and spacing and the number of virtual sources and receivers in retrieving ghost reflections with high interpretability resolution.

Safe navigation in ports and waterways subjected to siltation requires nautical depth monitoring. For this purpose, surveying vessels equipped with a zero-offset echo sounder and intrusive point measurements are frequently used. Because these measurements depend on the availability of a surveying vessel and require access to quay walls, such as at the container terminals in seaports, the temporal resolution is limited. Especially at these locations, a high temporal resolution monitoring system could allow for a higher occupancy rate. We propose to use Distributed Acoustic Sensing to monitor the nautical depth using fiber-optical cables. We install five horizontal fibers at different heights between two points and continuously record along the complete installation. Analysing the continuous recordings, we show that horizontal fibers can be used to monitor the water-mud interface depth with a vertical resolution around six mm. Multiple passive sources, like vessel movements and water currents, are used to estimate the water-mud interface.

The Marchenko method is capable of estimating Green’s functions between the surface of the Earth and arbitrary locations in the subsurface. These Green’s functions are used to redatum wavefields to a deeper level in the subsurface. The Marchenko method enables the isolation of the response of a specific layer or package of layers, free from the influence of the overburden and underburden. In this study, we apply the Marchenko-based isolation technique to land S-wave seismic data acquired in the Groningen province, the Netherlands. We apply the technique for combined elimination of the overburden and underburden. Our results indicate that this approach enhances the resolution of reflection data. These enhanced reflections can be utilised for imaging and monitoring applications.

As part of the Synergetic Utilisation of CO (Formula presented.) storage Coupled with geothermal EnErgy Deployment project, investigating CO (Formula presented.) reinjection with different seismic methods, both passive and active seismic surveys have been conducted at the geothermal power plant at Hellisheiði, Iceland. During the 2021 survey, two geophone lines recorded noise for a week. We process the passive-source data with seismic interferometry to image the subsurface structure around the CarbFix2 reinjection reservoir. To improve image quality, we perform an illumination analysis to select only noise panels dominated by body-wave energy. The results show that most noise panels are dominated by air-wave energy arriving from the direction of the power plant. We use panels with a near-vertical incidence to create a zero-offset image and a larger selection of body-wave-dominated panels to create virtual common-shot gathers. We process the gathers with a simple reflection seismology processing workflow to obtain stacked images. The zero-offset images show a relatively lower signal-to-noise ratio and only horizontal reflectors. The stacked images show slightly dipping reflectors and possibly lateral amplitude variations around the expected injection region. This could indicate a region of interest for future research into the reinjection reservoir.

We apply supervirtual interferometry to boost the surface-wave content of two different seismic surveys. The method uses seismic interferometric principles to exploit data redundancy in multi-fold surveys. The effect on the first survey is generally positive, where the signal-to-noise ratio is improved and the relative amplitude of other events, like direct waves or reflections, is decreased. The second survey shows that the effects are not always positive. For some shots, the quality of the dispersion curve decreases and for some a higher mode becomes more dominant. This can be caused when assumptions made for seismic interferometry by corrrelation are not complied with, primarily heterogeneities in the medium and attenuation. As such, the effect of applying supervirtual interferometry could be used as an indication for local heterogeneities.

The structural health of historic quay walls needs to be evaluated well in light of the new conditions they are subjected to. For that, information about their current subsurface structure and condition of their subsurface constructional elements, but also information about the surrounding subsurface structure is crucial. Such information can be supplied by seismic imaging and characterization. We show preliminary results from a high-resolution S-wave survey we performed at a historic quay wall in Overamstel, the Netherlands. We recorded data along four lines – two parallel and two perpendicular to the quay wall. We used a sledge-hammer and a beam as a source and 10-Hz horizontal-component geophones, both oriented in the crossline direction. We show that applying simple processing along the two parallel lines to obtain stacked sections already allowed extracting useful structural information of the subsurface.

As the global need for aluminum constantly rises, bauxite is considered to be a critical mineral, and the mining industry is in search of new and effective exploration solutions. In this context, we design and implement a purely earthquake-based passive seismic survey at the Gerolekas bauxite mining site in Greece. It is a very difficult exploration setting, characterized by rough topography, limited accessibility, and a very complex geotectonic regime. We gather a passive seismic data set consisting of four months of continuous recordings (May to August 2018) from 129 stand-alone 3C seismological stations. We then analyze this data set and extract 848 microearthquakes that will serve as sources for the application of local earthquake tomography (LET) and transient-source seismic interferometry (TSI) by autocorrelation. We apply LET to estimate the 3D P- and S-wave velocity models of the subsurface below the study area and TSI by autocorrelation to retrieve the zero-offset virtual reflection responses below each of the recording stations. The velocity models provide a relatively coarse image of a previously completely unexplored part of the mining concession, whereas the higher-resolution virtual reflection imaging illuminates in detail the different interfaces. We also reprocess three lines of legacy active seismic data that were shot in 2003, using the LET P-wave velocity model for depth migration, and confirm the improvement of seismic imaging. Finally, we evaluate the obtained results using well data and jointly interpret them, extracting useful information on the expected target depths and indicating that earthquake-based passive seismic techniques can be an innovative and environmentally friendly option for mineral exploration.

Seismic interferometry (SI) retrieves new seismic responses between receivers or sources using, e.g., cross-correlation. Applying SI to a reflection survey with active sources and receivers at the surface, one retrieves ghost reflections besides the physical reflections. Ghost reflections are retrieved from the correlation of two primary reflections or multiples from two different depth levels. They are only sensitive to the changes in the layer that cause them to appear in the result of SI. Using ghost reflections from SI, we investigate the possibility of monitoring pore-pressure depletion due to gas extraction in the Groningen gas field, Netherlands. We performed an active-source transmission laboratory experiment to measure S-wave velocities at pore pressures of 50, 80, 100, 200, and 300 bar. Using these values; we numerically model scalar reflection data with sources and receivers at the surface for the Groningen subsurface model. Applying SI by auto-correlation to these datasets, we retrieve zero-offset ghost reflections. We show that using only the reflections from the top and the bottom of the reservoir is essential for retrieving a specific ghost reflection from inside the reservoir. The retrieved ghost reflections showed clear time differences, indicating they can be utilized to monitor reservoir pore-pressure depletion changes.

As part of a seismic monitoring project in a geothermal field, where the feasibility of re-injection and storage of produced CO₂ is being investigated, a P- and S-wave seismic velocity characterisation study was carried out. The effect of axial and radial (up to 42 MPa) stress, pore pressure (up to 17 MPa), pore fluid (100% brine or supercritical CO₂) and temperature (21–100 °C) on seismic properties were studied in the laboratory for the two main reservoir formations at the Kızıldere geothermal reservoir. Each (un)confined compressive strength test performed revealed a similar trend: rapidly increasing velocity at low stresses followed by a more moderate increase at higher stresses. The data implied that the stress-dependency of the velocity increased with temperature. Increasing temperatures resulted in decreasing P-wave velocities due to mineral thermal expansion. This temperature-dependency increased with reducing stress levels. The S-wave velocity seems to be more sensitive to changes in pore pressure than the P-wave velocity. On the other hand, the S-wave velocity is less affected by an increasing axial stress compared to the P-wave velocity. By performing multiple nonlinear regression on the velocity dataset, related to a brine-saturated fractured marble, second-degree polynomial trends were found for the P- and S-wave velocity, as a function of temperature, axial stress, and pore pressure, that can potentially be used for predicting velocities at Kızıldere, or other similar, geothermal site(s). For distinguishing between a 100% brine-saturated versus a fully supercritical CO₂-saturated fracture, the arrival times of the first arrivals were too close to each other to allow their utilization. The fracture aperture was too small compared to the wavelength of the source signal. However, differences in P- and S-wave amplitudes of the first arrivals were seen, where the supercritical CO₂-saturated crack revealed consistently lower peak and trough amplitudes compared to the brine-saturated scenario.

The Ţicău area (NW Romania) is part of the collisional zone between the Tisza and Dacia mega-units. Imaging of Ţicău area's subsurface geological structure will contribute to the understanding of the processes, which controlled its tectonic evolution. Analysis of outcrops provides accurate information for the building of kinematic sections used to explain the small-scale deformations of sedimentary formations, such as those developed south of the Ţicău mountains. Imaging of large-scale deformations requires analysis of data recorded and/or measured over a wider area. We use Seismic Interferometry by cross-correlation on ambient noise recorded along with a line located north of the Ţicău mountains. The passive seismic section obtained after virtual body-wave reflections processing displays folded and faulted Paleogene formations, which are in good agreement with the observations on outcrops found to the south of the Ţicău mountains. The active-source data recorded along with the same line are too noisy for interpretation.

Poor knowledge of source and receiver positions in ultra-high-resolution marine seismic data is the cause of severe damage which requires novel processing techniques to mitigate. This type of seismic data is highly relevant for ultra-shallow subsurface imaging in geo-engineering projects both offshore and in harbours. Current positioning technologies are limited partly by their accuracy but also the fact that they are only placed on head and tail buoys of the towed arrays. This leaves receiver locations on the length of the streamer cable to be interpolated. Rather than developing additional processing methods, we propose to improve the quality of the data by introducing a complimentary receiver positioning system to reconstruct the shape of the streamer cable in 4D using Fiber Optic Shape Sensing (FOSS) technology. In this abstract, we outline the key features of FOSS technology and provide a conceptual overview of our efforts to bring this technology to the field.

Using post-critical reflection data, it is possible to obtain useful information that allows more reliable geological characterization of the subsurface. However, the strong distortion caused by the phase shift in post-critical wavelets makes the use of post-critical reflections rather challenging. For this reason, an approach which is capable of estimating the phase shift of each wavelet of a reflection event in a data-driven manner is desirable. In this vein, in case the frequency spectrum of a wavelet can be correctly estimated, it is possible to estimate the instantaneous phase shift. In this work, we propose an approach which can perform such estimation based on spectral recomposition of seismic data. We design an inversion approach in order to reconstruct the seismic spectrum of the wavelets of a reflection event, which subsequently allows us to estimate the instantaneous phase of each wavelet of the near-surface reflection events without performing prior velocity analysis and/or critical-angle estimation. After finding the instantaneous phase for each wavelet of a reflection event, we show next how one can find the respective phase shifts that can then be corrected.

Geothermal energy is a cleaner and more sustainable source of power, which plays a key role in the transition to a low-carbon economy. Sustainable and safe exploitation of geothermal resources, however, depends on our ability to understand and manage the associated seismic risks. In 2018, Nature's Heat geothermal project began operations in Kwintsheul, Netherlands, aiming to supply heat to 64 hectares of greenhouses. Between July and October 2019, a temporary seismic array was installed to monitor for possible seismic activity at the site. Microseismic moment-tensor inversion is a valuable tool for understanding the mechanics and structure of geothermal reservoirs, and for optimizing their exploitation. It can be challenging, though, to apply this technique when there are high levels of ambient seismic noise, as is often the case in geothermal operations in densely populated areas. In this study, we evaluate the feasibility of inverting the centroid moment tensor of microseismic events in Kwintsheul, using probabilistic moment-tensor inversions. We first test the probabilistic inversion using synthetic recordings of ambient seismic noise, after which we apply the technique to the low-magnitude (Md=0.16) event recorded on July 14, 2019. Our results give insight into the challenges and limitations of applying moment-tensor inversion to low-magnitude events in the context of geothermal operations in the Netherlands.

We conducted ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys to detect the presence of simulated clandestine burials at the Amsterdam Research Initiative for Subsurface Taphonomy and Anthropology (ARISTA) test facility. Our aim is to determine the characteristic responses of the simulated clandestine burials in this man-made sandy environment (reclaimed land) and use them to provide recommendations for forensic investigations. We performed GPR surveys over three simulated clandestine burials at ARISTA during four non-consecutive days. The acquired data represent common-offset data to investigate changes to burial detectability depending on central antenna frequency (250 MHz and 500 MHz), different GPR instruments (NOGGIN or pulseEKKO), changes to survey grid orientation relative to burials, and increased soil moisture content in the survey area. In common-offset radargrams the burial anomalies take on many forms, appearing as disruptions to existing features (direct-wave arrivals and soil horizons) and as isolated reflection events (hyperbolic events and burial-length horizontal anomalies). In time slices, the burials are characterized by high- or low-amplitude rectangular anomalies. When used in conjunction, the radargrams and time slices produce characteristic responses consistent with the locations of the burials, regardless of the survey grid orientation. Increased soil moisture at the site improves the detectability of the burials.

We show results of of using distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) for continuous relative water-column changes monitoring by relating the oscillating frequencies to measurements of a nearby tidal-station. The oscillations have a great qualitative agreement with the tidal-station, having a period of 12 hours and 25 minutes. No calibration is required to measure the tides and the relative difference in water height, though calibration would allow measuring the absolute water height at any location. Because we used two poles with different exposure lengths to air, at different depths and only 38 m apart, we can interpret he spectral oscillations are a result of constructive interference in our poles, likely generated by the wind. DAS could be a very attractive alternative for tidal monitoring in shallow marine environments, ports and waterways. DAS could potentially resolve spatial resolution problems with tidal monitoring, which is currently cost-prohibited, at a relatively low expense by wrapping a fibre around a pre-existing structure such as a docking pole. Furthermore, DAS can be used remotely and continuously, allowing for better model calibrations or local tidal fluctuation monitoring. This monitoring system could help determine if ships have enough water clearance to dock and, in turn, increase the occupation rate.