The Dutch electricity system is undergoing a rapid transformation driven by the increasing share of variable renewable energy sources like wind and solar power. This transition, coupled with the electrification of various sectors, is leading to growing imbalances between electricity supply and demand, challenging the stability of the grid. To maintain balance, the Transmission System Operator (TSO), TenneT, relies on balancing services such as the automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve (aFRR). Traditionally provided by conventional power plants, there is a growing need for new flexible resources like Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) to participate in these markets.

 

Currently, the business model for home battery aggregators like Zonneplan is based on "passive balancing," where batteries strategically take out-of-balance positions to profit from imbalance price fluctuations. However, the sudden widespread and simultaneous application of this strategy has led to unintended consequences, including system oscillations and a high frequency of "Regulation State 2" (RS2) quarters, where the system swings between shortage and surplus. This development not only complicates grid management for TenneT but also reduces the profitability of passive balancing for market participants.

 

In response, TenneT is working to make active participation in the aFRR market more attractive for fast-responding assets like batteries. This research addresses the critical question of whether a shift from passive balancing to active aFRR participation is financially viable for aggregators of home batteries, using Zonneplan as a case study.

 

This thesis compares the performance of Zonneplan's passive balancing strategy with three simulated aFRR bidding strategies. The research is guided by the following main research question: How does the performance of aFRR bidding strategies compare to Zonneplan’s currently used passive balancing strategy?

 

To answer this, the study is structured around three sub-questions:

1. How does the currently used passive balancing strategy of Zonneplan work and how does it perform under the growing frequency of Regulation State 2 ISPs?

2. What are the current trends in the aFRR bidding ladder, prices, and volumes?

3. What are possible bidding strategies for Zonneplan to participate in the Dutch aFRR market and how do they perform?

To answer these research questions, the study applies a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative case analysis, quantitative data analysis, and simulation modeling. Zonneplan's passive balancing strategy was examined through internal documentation and discussions with employees. A backcast of the period January 2024–March 2025 was used to analyze the passive balancing strategy performance using Python, while considering Ex-Post trading and both internal and external portfolio advantages. The aFRR market analysis drew on publicly available TenneT datasets to identify trends in prices, volumes, and bidding ladder. Finally, three aFRR bidding strategies were simulated using a custom-built Python model that replicates bidding, activation, and financial settlement processes at one-minute resolution, enabling a robust comparison with Zonneplan’s passive balancing strategy. The model incorporates real-world constraints such as bid timing and state-of-charge limitations.

The analysis of Zonneplan's passive balancing backcast data from January 2024 to March 2025 reveals that while the strategy initially showed growing revenue, its revenue has been declining since August 2024. This is mainly due to increasing charging costs and partly due to the increased frequency of RS2, which, despite price risk mitigation through Ex-Post trading and Portfolio advantages, limits revenue opportunities.

The aFRR market analysis identifies key trends, including the impact of the European PICASSO platform, which has led to higher activation volumes. While extreme price peaks for upward regulation have become less frequent, average prices remain attractive. A clear daily pattern in aFRR prices, often correlated with Day-Ahead market prices, presents opportunities for dynamic bidding.

Three aFRR bidding strategies were simulated: a constant bid strategy, a Day-Ahead price-based strategy, and an intraday price-based strategy. The Day-Ahead price-based strategy (Bid Strategy 2) yielded the highest net revenue, consistently outperforming the others.

 

The final comparison shows that the simulated aFRR bid strategy (Bid Strategy 2) consistently generates higher net revenue than the passive balancing strategy throughout the entire analysis period. The aFRR strategy achieves higher activation volumes and benefits from being able to capture revenue during RS2 periods, where passive balancing is ineffective. Furthermore, aFRR participation aligns directly with the TSO's need for system stability, offering a more robust and system-supportive business model.

 

The discussion highlights key limitations of this research, including limited data availability on passive balancing, simplifications in the bidding simulations, and the rapidly evolving nature of the aFRR market. It also outlines the main implications for the broader context and key stakeholders. For home battery aggregators, the findings demonstrate a clear financial incentive to transition from passive balancing to active aFRR participation, offering not only more stable and higher revenues but also enabling batteries to contribute more effectively to grid stability. For TenneT, it is encouraging that there is a clear financial incentive for aggregators to shift from passive balancing to active aFRR participation. This shift is expected to reduce the frequency oscillations that are currently amplified by uncoordinated passive responses, while enabling batteries to actively support grid stability by following TenneT's aFRR setpoints, effectively using their fast response capabilities to prevent oscillations rather than cause them. Finally, for home battery owners, the study suggests that while passive balancing revenues are declining, participating in aFRR through aggregators can maintain a reasonable payback period.

 

The research concludes with several suggestions for future work. Future studies should examine how an aFRR-focused strategy can be integrated into broader multi-market value stacking approaches, including intraday arbitrage and selective passive balancing, to reduce revenue volatility and improve overall profitability. More detailed econometric and scenario-based analyses are also needed to better understand aFRR market dynamics, especially in light of regulatory changes and increasing cross-border integration via PICASSO. As battery participation grows, future research should explore potential market saturation effects and their impact on price levels, activation frequency, and aggregator returns. Lastly, the gradual phase-out of gas-fired power plants from balancing markets introduces new uncertainties, warranting investigation into how this shift could affect price volatility, scarcity pricing, and the strategic positioning of new flexible assets like batteries.

The Dutch energy system is evolving rapidly, transitioning from centralized fossil-based generation to decentralized renewable sources. At the same time, electrification is increasing across heating, mobility, and industry, placing significant strain on the electricity grid. This imbalance between supply and demand leads to severe congestion issues, costing the Netherlands approximately 20-40 billion EUR annually. While expanding grid infrastructure is an option, it is costly, time-consuming, and constrained by resource shortages. As an alternative, market-driven flexibility solutions such as battery storage, alongside regulatory interventions like alternative transport tariffs, are being explored for their potential to relieve congestion.
This research examines how alternative transport tariffs impact battery behavior and grid stability in the Dutch distribution network. Specifically, it evaluates the effects of two newly introduced tariff structures: Time-of-Use (TOU) tariffs, which warrant flexible participation on the grid, and Time-Block (TB) tariffs, which provide discounts for energy usage within predefined time windows. The study assesses battery behavior, congestion relief, and financial viability under these tariffs, comparing their effects to a baseline scenario without alternative transport tariffs and without a battery. A key objective is to determine whether non-market-based mechanisms such as alternative transport tariffs can enhance congestion management and whether the TOU tariff should be extended to the distribution grid.
To analyze these effects, a quantitative modeling approach is used, combining a Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model, which optimizes battery operation in the day-ahead and intraday electricity markets, with a PyPSA distribution network model, which simulates battery interactions within the grid. The study evaluates three scenarios: no tariff, TOU tariffs, and TB tariffs. A sensitivity analysis is conducted to examine the robustness of results under different price fluctuations and seasonal variations.
The results show that battery storage significantly improves congestion management by reducing line overloading, renewable energy curtailment, and peak loads. However, the extent of these benefits depends on the tariff design. The Time-of-Use tariff proves to be an effective mechanism, providing a structured yet flexible approach that allows batteries to optimize charging and discharging based on real-time grid conditions. This improves both their financial viability and their role in congestion relief. In contrast, the Time-Block tariff imposes rigid constraints that limit battery owners’ ability to adapt to market signals, significantly reducing both the financial attractiveness and technical effectiveness of batteries for congestion management. Seasonal variations also affect battery performance, with winter periods exhibiting higher volatility due to fluctuating energy demand and supply conditions. While some peak shaving occurs under all tariff scenarios, its effectiveness is reduced under the TB tariff because of its restrictive design...

The urgency of addressing climate change has resulted in the implementation of proactive climate policies across multiple sectors. Including the business sector, where regulations aim on the energy efficiency and sustainability within companies’ facilities. In the Netherlands, recent regulations have imposed significant energy efficiency requirements on office-based companies, particularly concerning the energy efficiency and sustainability of office buildings. This research investigates the impact of Dutch climate policies on companies within the business sector, focusing on how these companies adapt their office buildings and sustainability strategies to comply with the new energy efficiency regulations. Through a combination of semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, this research explores the practical measures companies are taking to meet energy efficiency standards, the challenges they face in implementing these measures, and the role of internal corporate motivation in driving sustainability initiatives.

Three main regulations are included and investigated in this study: the minimum energy label C for office buildings, the energy savings obligation (including the recognised measures list), and the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) audit obligation. The study provides detailed insights into how involved companies navigate the technical and organisational complexities of complying with these policies, including negotiating with landlords for rented office spaces and balancing compliance costs with financial viability. Additionally, this research highlights the extent to which companies’ sustainability practices are driven by regulatory compliance or by a deeper commitment to social corporate responsibility in sustainability. Long term strategies and culture will be included in this research to create a more complete view of companies’ stance and strategies.
By presenting a nuanced analysis of the effects of Dutch climate policy on the business sector, this research contributes to the broader understanding of how companies are responding to the evolving sustainability landscape and energy efficiency goals in the business sector. The findings inform both policymakers and companies on effective strategies for enhancing energy efficiency in office buildings while addressing the practical and organisational barriers to implementation.

The digitalization of European universities’ tool infrastructure has transformed how institutions operate and deliver education to students, from sharing content on learning management systems to hosting lectures on video-conferencing platforms. However, despite many new benefits of digital education technologies (DETs) and their contribution to reaching the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 targets for Quality Education, it also comes with new challenges like user privacy, environmental impacts, and shifting power dynamics between institutions and service providers. Additionally, concerns have been raised regarding the responsible development and longevity of the university’s digital infrastructure given the recent rapid digitalization trend and how new DETs are selected.

Sustainability assessment can be a useful model to evaluate an institution’s DET selection process as it provides a holistic evaluation through a multidimensional perspective to develop a more responsible and future-proof approach to digital education infrastructure. However, a multidimensional sustainability analysis has not been applied in the context of DET selection. Therefore, it is unclear to decision-makers what sustainable DET looks like and what role sustainability plays in the DET selection process. This study addressed this gap by answering the following question: How are European higher education institutions incorporating sustainability into selecting digital education technologies?

The sustainability dimensions of DETs were formulated by conducting a literature review of contemporary models, encompassing the environmental, social, and technological aspects. A more sustainable DET increases the positive impact along each of these dimensions. An environmentally sustain- able DET preserves and protects natural resources by reducing the environmental impact through its hardware and software. A socially sustainable DET increases equal access to education for all learners, regardless of socioeconomic status, disabilities, or geographic location while preserving individual privacy. A technologically sustainable DET is long-lasting, possesses the necessary functionalities, and balances a tool’s simplicity, openness, and ownership. While most sustainability models include the economic dimension, due to the university’s non-profit nature and the common prioritization of economic factors above other criteria in decision-making, this study excluded the economic dimension to examine the other dimensions more closely. Furthermore, the pedagogical dimension was omitted due to its sustainability considerations typically arising after the implementation of a DET, rather than during its selection stage and therefore is beyond the scope of this research.

Four key actors involved in the DET selection process were identified through an actor analysis. These include the university’s Head of IT who oversees the institution’s infrastructure system and their IT tool specialists who provide technical expertise, service providers whose products comprise the DET market, and education associations who help universities procure DETs. Ten semi-structured interviews were conducted with European university Heads of IT to gather data on the current DET selection process and the challenges institutions face when incorporating sustainability into DET selection.

The sustainability dimensions were used in conjunction with grounded theory open and axial coding analysis to evaluate the sustainability of current DET selection processes. The results showed that decision-makers predominantly utilize the EU-regulated tendering process to select DETs, which comprises minimal sustainability criteria while assigning significant importance to the economic factor (i.e., DET price). Additionally, interviewees shared they prioritize social and technological sustainability, specifically the privacy, data security, and functionality of DETs over other sustainability criteria. On the other hand, environmental sustainability is underrepresented in DET selection criteria. This is primarily due to the lack of available data and initiatives collecting DET environmental impact metrics, making it difficult for decision-makers to create relevant requirements and kickout criteria to compare DET options based on environmental sustainability. Finally, the analysis illustrated the three most common challenges that hinder sustainable DET selection are the limited financial and human resources, the insignificant or lack of sustainability criterion weighting, and the long and inflexible tender process.

Overall, this study contributes to filling the knowledge gap in understanding the sustainability of current European universities’ DET selection process and highlights key challenges decision-makers and researchers should focus on to improve the sustainability of digital education technologies. Future research can build on this work by expanding the scope beyond Northwestern European institutions, interviewing other decision-maker actors, and developing a standardized selection process for sustainable DET selection.

Additionally, recommendations were made to the four actor groups as well as general advice for universities to increase DET sustainability. The Head of IT should prioritize the environmental aspect in DET criteria and collaborate with service providers to address environmental impact metrics. They should also encourage the development of new tools by teachers and students. The IT tool specialist should engage in co-development with service providers for better tool support and to ensure a secure and functional digital infrastructure. Service providers need to align their products with sustainability criteria, propose pilot projects to universities, and share environmental impact metrics with relevant stakeholders. Education associations should organize collective efforts to enhance the sustainability of the DET tendering process and offer streamlined services like joint procurement and model contracts to simplify the selection process. Universities could transition to renewable energy to reduce DET’s carbon footprint, implement e-waste recycling and disposal programs, and support research into sustainable DET.

In the face of the current environmental crisis led by the extended use of fossil fuels to cover society’s energy needs, sustainability objectives have been defined around the world. In the European Union, the European Green Deal has emerged as a leading guideline for its member states to achieve energy neutrality by 2050. The Netherlands has acted accordingly establishing its Climate Act, and setting ambitious objectives for this same year. Among these objectives, a full halt in natural gas use finds its way. Considering that the building sector, and specifically households, present a high consumption of energy, it results important to analyze how this sector can reduce its gas consumption and migrate towards the use of renewable heat systems.

The importance of behavioral characteristics and policy conditions that surround households regarding this transition has not been studied in depth in the documented literature and therefore stands as an opportunity area that this thesis covers. For achieving this, an agent-based model was developed using NetLogo, taking into account the characteristics of the Dutch population, being represented in the form of a sample neighborhood. The technical settings available in the model represent mature technologies that are currently in use in the Netherlands, and that can be used collectively or individually. Complementing and supporting these technologies, the Dutch government has made available a series of policy instruments, namely subsidies and credits, that financially support households in acquiring them. The availability of these subsidies is mainly dependent on the type of household ownership and additional factors, which are included in the model.

A behavioral theory known as the theory of planned behavior was implemented to define the households’ behavior. This theory links three elements, namely attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, to the final intention of households to execute an action. Regarding this specific topic, the study found out that the main beliefs that influence attitude are environmental friendliness, awareness of gas-saving measures, energy independence and economic drive. The subjective norms, which relate to social influence, are represented through the concept of belief dynamics, which develops the idea that social connections can shape a household’s set of beliefs. Finally, perceived behavioral control, which is a measure of the apparent facility to execute a certain action, is reflected in four main external elements, namely the availability of subsidies, the municipality efforts, time availability, and financial capability of households.

The results of the model showed that with the current conditions, the Netherlands would be able to achieve a total of 55% of gas-free households by 2050. This, in turn, would represent a reduction of 45% of the current natural gas being used. To evaluate the extent to which behavioral characteristics and policy conditions influence the heat transition, additional scenarios were developed, where random behavioral attributes were assigned. Following the same line, additional scenarios were defined where the number of available subsidies and the amount awarded per subsidy varied, in addition to a scenario with a higher gas price. These scenarios showed that behavioral characteristics are a very relevant factor and can shape the extent to which the heat transition can be achieved. The policy conditions showed an influence, both in the extent of the heat transition and on the uptake of specific technologies. However, the amount awarded per subsidy and the price of gas showed no relevant differences in gas consumption or technology choice.

The results provide insights into the possibilities for policymakers to ensure that this transition is fulfilled. Policies should target the beliefs of society, either by inducing people into them or by reinforcing them. Besides this, technology choice seems to be directly influenced by the number of subsidies available for each specific technology, which could be useful to target specific technologies that might result more promising than others. Finally, considering that varying the amount awarded per subsidy did not generate a substantial difference, there is a possibility to redefine the subsidy schemes and reallocate this financial means to support the tenants, which is currently the group with the most restricted access to subsidies.

Multiple challenges affect the effectiveness of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures, such as accountability, intergenerational justice and developing countries’ increased participation in greenhouse gas emissions. The high complexity of information surrounding models’ assumptions, results, and scenarios related to climate change also presents a challenge, especially when communicating with policymakers. In this context, support tools such as policy platforms can help bridge the science-policy gap by allowing policymakers to understand scenarios and available policy levers, enabling a better understanding of relevant concepts and models or serving as hubs for disseminating best practices and success stories. Available literature often evaluates support tools within the context of use by regular citizens, making it unclear how policymakers perceive support tools and how well they meet their needs, pointing to an important knowledge gap. This thesis explores policymakers’ and policy advisors’ perceptions of the usefulness of climate change mitigation and adaptation (CCMA) policy platforms and the characteristics of such policy platforms they prefer in order to use them as support tools. A collective case study was conducted with ten CCMA policy platforms within the context of the EU-funded Horizon 2020 programme. In addition, interviews (11) and surveys (9) with policymakers and policymakers’ advisors in the Netherlands and seven other countries within and beyond the EU were conducted.

Nine characteristics of CCMA policy platforms were identified: Transparency & Credibility of information, Ease of use, Flexibility of use, Accessibility & Portability, Education & Awareness, Communication of complex information, Data visualisation & interactivity, Actively maintained and supported, and Security & privacy. Interviews and surveys show that accessibility, relevance, applicability, and credibility were identified as the primary factors driving the perception of policymakers about the usefulness of CCMA policy platforms and four groups of characteristics were identified with decreasing levels of priority for policymakers: mandatory or must-have (formed by communication of complex information, free and open access to the tool, transparency regarding data sources and limitations, and high level of detail for spatial and temporal data); highly desirable or should-have (formed by availability of training and learning functionalities, availability of detailed documentation on concepts and models, interactive and easy-to-navigate elements, and availability of a web-based platform); ‘nice to have’ or could-have (user stories from policymakers or communities, availability of very recent data, ability to import user data/export results, and ability to modify parameters and run custom analyses), and indifferent (availability of languages beyond English and the ability to use the tool in mobile phones or tablets).

Four main recommendations are made to improve the design and use of CCMA policy platforms: Incorporating systematic reviews of existing CCMA policy platforms as part of projects developing such platforms, involving boundary organisations in the development and use of CCMA policy platforms, developing CCMA policy platforms with longer life expectancies and developing CCMA policy platforms flexible for different needs and preferences of policymakers.

With these results, new CCMA policy platforms can be developed with a better understanding of how useful policymakers perceive them and what they want from these support tools.

Climate change has devastating effects on society, increasing the risk of natural disasters and associated health issues. These effects are caused by the greenhouse gases emitted by humans. Aligned with the Paris Agreement, the Dutch government aims to achieve a 100% reduction in emissions by 2050, striving for climate neutrality.

Climate justice, an emerging theoretical concept, recognizes the unevenly distributed burdens and benefits of carbon emissions and calls for effective mitigation strategies. One of the most polluting sectors is the energy sector, which still heavily relies on fossil fuels. To achieve climate neutrality, a transition to sustainable forms of energy is necessary. Energy justice, a theoretical framework advocating for equitable energy distribution, representative energy decision-making, and a balanced cost-benefit distribution among citizens, has gained traction in recent academic literature.

In the Netherlands, the energy transition is governed at regional and local levels through regional energy strategies. However, understanding of local and regional governance in this context is somewhat limited. This research combines the concepts of regional governance and the energy justice framework and applies them to the Rotterdam-The Hague energy region.

The research objectives of this thesis are to comprehend regional energy decision-making, identify stakeholders experiencing energy injustices, examine how these injustices are currently addressed, and propose potential improvements.

Utilizing a mixed-methods approach involving interviews and media analysis, the research reveals instances of energy injustices experienced by citizens in this region, including energy poverty. While the regional and local governments are presently unaware of this framework, they acknowledge the importance of a just energy transition and are actively developing strategies to mitigate these injustices.

Policy recommendations encompass various levels: providing structural financial support to local governments at the national level, promoting knowledge exchange and cross-border collaboration at the regional level, and enhancing citizen participation, ownership in energy projects, and insulation programs at the local level.

In conclusion, this thesis offers valuable insights into local and regional energy transition governance, focusing on energy justice, energy poverty, and citizen participation.

The transition from a centralized to a decentralized energy infrastructure is one of the most discussed features of the future energy system. With the fast growth of renewable energy technologies, which can be integrated in the built environment and in contexts like small production centers, the development of distributed energy generation and storage systems closer to consumers is expected to play a significant role in driving the change. Within this context, the role of Energy Communities is emerging and is at the center of numerous studies. The Green Village in Delft is developing the 24/7 Energy Lab project, focusing on providing reliable, affordable and clean energy to a small-scale energy community by means of a system composed of solar panels for energy generation, batteries for electrical energy storage, and an hydrogen storage system consisting of electrolyzers, fuel cells and hydrogen tanks for seasonal energy storage.

Previous research has highlighted how an off-grid configuration would result in inconveniently high costs for the community's users, if compared to the average cost of energy in The Netherlands. The aim of this thesis is to study the system in a grid-connected configuration, and in particular to find the optimal sizes of the components in order to achieve the best trade off between three conflicting objectives : minimizing total costs, maximizing self- sufficiency and maximizing reliability. After modeling the system's components and their mutual interactions, the optimization was carried out on MATLAB using a variant of the NSGA-II algorithm, which provides a Pareto Set of equally optimal solutions for the problem. The solutions were then ranked with a Technique for Order Preference based on Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), to assist the decision-making process.

The simulations have determined that an installed capacity of 85.41 kWp (composed of 234 panels of 365 Wp each) results in the most effective choice for the solar energy generation, irrespective of the external conditions imposed. The optimal storage capacity, however, results significantly more influenced by factors such as grid imports limitations and price uncertainties. Under the conditions of limited imports from the grid, an optimal capacity of 75 kWh in the form of batteries was found. In general, the study confirms that the adoption of an hydrogen storage system is far from being convenient on a small scale residential level, regardless of the pricing conditions. The research has also posed an accent on the incremented costs incurred to reach full reliability of the system with low values of dependence from the grid, due to the high costs of the necessary storage equipment. Additionally, despite the best solutions found represent the optimal compromises balancing the conflicting objectives, reasonable solutions in terms of costs faced by the Community's users are usually not among the first choices of the ranking algorithm, mainly because they necessitate of at least 50% of the load to be supplied through grid imports.

Due to climate change, there is a push toward a reduction of greenhouse gasses. Through spatial planning, the province of South Holland plays a role in this process. However, this requires insights into relation between the energy system and the built environment that is currently lacking. This thesis shows how spatial clustering using the K-prototype algorithm can be used to find areas with similar characteristics. It also describes how this information can be used in spatial planning by decisionmakers like the province of South Holland.

The Paris agreement has set European countries on a path towards decarbonization of the energy market. Due to the high dependence of natural gas in the Netherlands, various challenges will be faced when facing out fossil fuels. The major drawback of RES is that they are non-dispatchable, meaning their output generation fluctuates over time with respect to weather conditions, resulting in a temporal mismatch of supply and demand. In order to allow shifting of non-dispatchable loads, short-term and long-term energy storage is required. The objective of this research was the implementation of a self-sufficient hybrid storage system in energy communities, including renewable energy generation, short-term and long-term energy storage. A simulation was conducted to form a techno-economic analysis of the system. The results from this simulation showed that the minimization of total costs is obtained by minimizing the capacities of the hydrogen system, as these represent the most expensive components of the system, and maximizing the PV generation, as it is the cheapest component throughout the lifetime. However, the results showed very high costs due to the high costs associated with the hydrogen system, which makes these systems with hydrogen storage impossible to compete with traditional fossil fuel sources. The electricity prices for households of the energy coming from the fuel cell can be greater than three times the electricity price of the national grid

The security and reliability of the European power system network that is used to transmit electricity from producers to consumers is under increasing pressure. The penetration of renewable energy resources that have a variable and unpredictable energy output and the rising cost of the operation of fossil-based power generators are negatively influencing the availability of controlling power that is critical for normal system functioning. Without this controlling power, there is a risk of electricity network imbalances and complete electricity blackouts. To be able to guarantee the continuity of electricity supply, transmission system operators are required to search for new and alternative flexibility resources, including resources that could provide the primary system response (frequency containment reserve) to these grid imbalances. Battery energy storage systems are one of the most promising alternative resources that could provide this load controlling capacity. These systems are, however, extremely cost-intensive. Using a battery for multiple battery applications simultaneously could improve the financial viability of these battery energy storage systems and thereby, accelerate their deployment in society. To be able to get the full potential out of this value-stacking opportunity, more insight into the technical and operational compatibility of using a battery for frequency containment reserve and other battery applications is required. In this master thesis, a research was conducted to obtain a better understanding of the opportunities to create added value in the utilization of a battery that is providing frequency containment reserve services. By means of a (multiple-)case study research (including a literature review, a simulation model and a time series analysis and forecasting model), more insight was obtained in the power and energy capacity utilization of a battery that is providing frequency containment reserve services and the usability of the leftover capacities of this battery for serving other battery applications. In the literature review that was performed, it was demonstrated that the activation of batteries for frequency containment reserve is mainly dependent upon the regulations and grid characteristics that are present in the area of interest. These regulations provide terms and conditions for the theoretical use of a battery’s power and energy capacity and therefore, the theoretical opportunities for valuestacking. These value-stacking opportunities include the use of moments in which a battery is idle and the time periods in which a battery is not using its full energy capacity. The simulation study that was performed subsequently showed that for all frequency containment reserve markets examined in this research, there are moments and periods in time in which a battery is not using its entire reserved frequency containment reserve power and energy capacity. This indicates that using a battery at these particular moments and periods in time for other battery purposes might create substantial added value to the overall system operation. The analysis of the data that was obtained from the simulation study showed that the practical usability of these moments and periods in time for value-stacking opportunities seems limited. Although it was illustrated that there are moments in which the battery’s power capacity is not used, no clear prediction can be made of these so called ‘idle moments’. Consequently, it is uncertain at what exact moments in time the battery is idle and could be used for other battery purposes. The duration of the idle moments is furthermore relatively short, which makes it difficult to use these idle time periods for applications that require consecutive power supply or energy storage. Results of the time series analysis and forecasting model demonstrated that there might be opportunities to predict the required energy capacity for frequency containment reserve. This indicates that forecasts can be made of the state of charge development of a battery over a certain time period. This information can be used to identify the underutilized battery energy capacity, which subsequently could be used for other battery applications. The combination of both the power and energy capacity limitations prove to be a challenge when aiming at value-stacking of a battery. Using the idle moments and the forecasted available energy capacity of a battery for other battery applications requires expert knowledge of the energy capacity that is needed for the additional application and seems to require flexibility of power capacity utilization of the additional application itself. Further research should focus on the improvement and validation of the frequency containment reserve activation forecasts to be able to make a better estimation of the battery energy capacity that is available for serving other battery purposes. Research should moreover be conducted to examine the energy and power requirements of other applications over time. This includes the need for state of charge control. The information that is obtained from these studies is essential to identify how various battery applications, including frequency containment reserve, can be properly aligned and could add value to the battery system operation.

Increased variable renewable energy sources penetration in The Netherlands require more flexibility that could be provided by distributed energy resources located at small end-users combined with demand response. Aggregators could act as intermediary entities to exploit the flexibility potential of small end-users and create value for Distribution System Operators (DSOs) by delivering electric flexibility services that support congestion management.

Aggregator Eneco CrowdNett is planning to commission a pool of households which will have a combined system of solar-PV and residential Battery Energy Storage (BES) units. Next to optimizing the household’s self-consumption, these systems will jointly be able to deliver power to the grid. Therefore, the system as designed by Eneco CrowdNett is used as a case-study during this research.

This research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how the value of an Aggregator’s electric flexibility services can be determined for DSOs, without jeopardizing the business case for the Aggregator and the CrowdNett participants themselves. A tool that simulates the behavior of residential BES units connected to the LV distribution grid is developed and tested, followed by a reflection on its usability for other cases.

The system under review in this study is framed as a Unit Commitment Problem (UCP), in which the generation units are represented by CrowdNett’s residential BES units that primarily deliver local service, but can also deliver congestion management services through load shifting. Linear Programming (LP) is considered a useful method to solve the UCP, which is implemented in the modelling software Linny-R.

It can be concluded the value of Eneco CrowdNett’s electric flexibility services for DSOs can not be determined by exclusive using a Unit Commitment model with a LP solver to replicate the behavior of residential BES units located at the LV distribution grid.

The model rather provides a tool to generally assess whether an Aggregator is able to reduce congestions in a given distribution network without jeopardizing her own business case and that of the end-users owning the BES units. The model should be supplied with input data regarding residential demand profiles, PV production profiles and the power capacity of the LV substation before the model output can be compared with the expected costs of grid reinforcements on a case-by-case basis to determine the value for DSOs.

With the growing population and urbanization of the living environment, challenges have come up for cities to bring down their emissions and become more smart. Smart city development can respond to these challenges.